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Hussnaetter KP, Palm P, Pich A, Franzreb M, Rapp E, Elling L. Strategies for Automated Enzymatic Glycan Synthesis (AEGS). Biotechnol Adv 2023; 67:108208. [PMID: 37437855 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Glycans are the most abundant biopolymers on earth and are constituents of glycoproteins, glycolipids, and proteoglycans with multiple biological functions. The availability of different complex glycan structures is of major interest in biotechnology and basic research of biological systems. High complexity, establishment of general and ubiquitous synthesis techniques, as well as sophisticated analytics, are major challenges in the development of glycan synthesis strategies. Enzymatic glycan synthesis with Leloir-glycosyltransferases is an attractive alternative to chemical synthesis as it can achieve quantitative regio- and stereoselective glycosylation in a single step. Various strategies for synthesis of a wide variety of different glycan structures has already be established and will exemplarily be discussed in the scope of this review. However, the application of enzymatic glycan synthesis in an automated system has high demands on the equipment, techniques, and methods. Different automation approaches have already been shown. However, while these techniques have been applied for several glycans, only a few strategies are able to conserve the full potential of enzymatic glycan synthesis during the process - economical and enzyme technological recycling of enzymes is still rare. In this review, we show the major challenges towards Automated Enzymatic Glycan Synthesis (AEGS). First, we discuss examples for immobilization of glycans or glycosyltransferases as an important prerequisite for the embedment and implementation in an enzyme reactor. Next, improvement of bioreactors towards automation will be described. Finally, analysis and monitoring of the synthesis process are discussed. Furthermore, automation processes and cycle design are highlighted. Accordingly, the transition of recent approaches towards a universal automated glycan synthesis platform will be projected. To this end, this review aims to describe essential key features for AEGS, evaluate the current state-of-the-art and give thought- encouraging impulses towards future full automated enzymatic glycan synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Philip Hussnaetter
- Laboratory for Biomaterials, Institute for Biotechnology and Helmholtz-Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstraße 20, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Philip Palm
- Laboratory for Biomaterials, Institute for Biotechnology and Helmholtz-Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstraße 20, D-52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Andrij Pich
- Functional and Interactive Polymers, Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry and DWI Leibniz-Institute for Interactive Materials e.V., RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Matthias Franzreb
- Karlsruher Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Functional Interfaces, Hermann v. Helmholtz, Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Erdmann Rapp
- glyXera GmbH, Brenneckestrasse 20 * ZENIT, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical System, Bioprocess Engineering, Sandtorstrasse 1, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Lothar Elling
- Laboratory for Biomaterials, Institute for Biotechnology and Helmholtz-Institute for Biomedical Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstraße 20, D-52074 Aachen, Germany.
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2
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Davenport B, Hallam SJ. Emerging enzyme surface display systems for waste resource recovery. Environ Microbiol 2023; 25:241-249. [PMID: 36369958 PMCID: PMC10100002 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.16284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The current century marks an inflection point for human progress, as the developed world increasingly comes to recognize that the ecological and socioeconomic impacts of resource extraction must be balanced with more sustainable modes of growth that are less reliant on non-renewable sources of energy and materials. This has opened a window of opportunity for cross-sector development of biotechnologies that harness the metabolic problem-solving power of microbial communities. In this context, recovery has emerged as an organizing principal to create value from industrial and municipal waste streams, and the search is on for new enzymes and platforms that can be used for waste resource recovery at scale. Enzyme surface display on cells or functionalized materials has emerged as a promising platform for waste valorization. Typically, surface display involves the use of substrate binding or catalytic domains of interest translationally fused with extracellular membrane proteins in a microbial chassis. Novel display systems with improved performance features include S-layer display with increased protein density, spore display with increased resistance to harsh conditions, and intracellular inclusions including DNA-free cells or nanoparticles with improved social licence for in situ applications. Combining these display systems with advances in bioprinting, electrospinning and high-throughput functional screening have potential to transform outmoded extractive paradigms into 'trans-metabolic" processes for remediation and waste resource recovery within an emerging circular bioeconomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Davenport
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Steven J Hallam
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Graduate Program in Bioinformatics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Genome Science and Technology Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Bradshaw Research Institute for Minerals and Mining, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- ECOSCOPE Training Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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3
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Neun S, Brear P, Campbell E, Tryfona T, El Omari K, Wagner A, Dupree P, Hyvönen M, Hollfelder F. Functional metagenomic screening identifies an unexpected β-glucuronidase. Nat Chem Biol 2022; 18:1096-1103. [PMID: 35799064 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-022-01071-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The abundance of recorded protein sequence data stands in contrast to the small number of experimentally verified functional annotation. Here we screened a million-membered metagenomic library at ultrahigh throughput in microfluidic droplets for β-glucuronidase activity. We identified SN243, a genuine β-glucuronidase with little homology to previously studied enzymes of this type, as a glycoside hydrolase 3 family member. This glycoside hydrolase family contains only one recently added β-glucuronidase, showing that a functional metagenomic approach can shed light on assignments that are currently 'unpredictable' by bioinformatics. Kinetic analyses of SN243 characterized it as a promiscuous catalyst and structural analysis suggests regions of divergence from homologous glycoside hydrolase 3 members creating a wide-open active site. With a screening throughput of >107 library members per day, picolitre-volume microfluidic droplets enable functional assignments that complement current enzyme database dictionaries and provide bridgeheads for the annotation of unexplored sequence space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Neun
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Paul Brear
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Eleanor Campbell
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Australian Synchrotron, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Theodora Tryfona
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Kamel El Omari
- Diamond Light Source, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, UK
| | - Armin Wagner
- Diamond Light Source, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, UK
| | - Paul Dupree
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Marko Hyvönen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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Liu F, Chen HM, Armstrong Z, Withers SG. Azido Groups Hamper Glycan Acceptance by Carbohydrate Processing Enzymes. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2022; 8:656-662. [PMID: 35647280 PMCID: PMC9136970 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c01172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Azido sugars have found frequent use as probes of biological systems in approaches ranging from cell surface metabolic labeling to activity-based proteomic profiling of glycosidases. However, little attention is typically paid to how well azide-substituted sugars represent the parent molecule, despite the substantial difference in size and structure of an azide compared to a hydroxyl. To quantitatively assess how well azides are accommodated, we have used glycosidases as tractable model enzyme systems reflecting what would also be expected for glycosyltransferases and other sugar binding/modifying proteins. In this vein, specificity constants have been measured for the hydrolysis of a series of azidodeoxy glucosides and N-acetylhexosaminides by a large number of glycosidases produced from expressed synthetic gene and metagenomic libraries. Azides at secondary carbons are not significantly accommodated, and thus, associated substrates are not processed, while those at primary carbons are productively recognized by only a small subset of the enzymes and often then only very poorly. Accordingly, in the absence of careful controls, results obtained with azide-modified sugars may not be representative of the situation with the natural sugar and should be interpreted with considerable caution. Azide incorporation can indeed provide a useful tool to monitor and detect glycosylation, but careful consideration should go into the selection of sites of azide substitution; such studies should not be used to quantitate glycosylation or to infer the absence of glycosylation activity.
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Kumagai Y, Kishimura H, Lang W, Tagami T, Okuyama M, Kimura A. Characterization of an Unknown Region Linked to the Glycoside Hydrolase Family 17 β-1,3-Glucanase of Vibrio vulnificus Reveals a Novel Glucan-Binding Domain. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20040250. [PMID: 35447923 PMCID: PMC9026390 DOI: 10.3390/md20040250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The glycoside hydrolase family 17 β-1,3-glucanase of Vibrio vulnificus (VvGH17) has two unknown regions in the N- and C-termini. Here, we characterized these domains by preparing mutant enzymes. VvGH17 demonstrated hydrolytic activity of β-(1→3)-glucan, mainly producing laminaribiose, but not of β-(1→3)/β-(1→4)-glucan. The C-terminal-truncated mutants (ΔC466 and ΔC441) showed decreased activity, approximately one-third of that of the WT, and ΔC415 lost almost all activity. An analysis using affinity gel containing laminarin or barley β-glucan revealed a shift in the mobility of the ΔC466, ΔC441, and ΔC415 mutants compared to the WT. Tryptophan residues showed a strong affinity for carbohydrates. Three of four point-mutations of the tryptophan in the C-terminus (W472A, W499A, and W542A) showed a reduction in binding ability to laminarin and barley β-glucan. The C-terminus was predicted to have a β-sandwich structure, and three tryptophan residues (Trp472, Trp499, and Trp542) constituted a putative substrate-binding cave. Linker and substrate-binding functions were assigned to the C-terminus. The N-terminal-truncated mutants also showed decreased activity. The WT formed a trimer, while the N-terminal truncations formed monomers, indicating that the N-terminus contributed to the multimeric form of VvGH17. The results of this study are useful for understanding the structure and the function of GH17 β-1,3-glucanases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuya Kumagai
- Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate 041-8611, Japan;
- Correspondence: (Y.K.); (A.K.)
| | - Hideki Kishimura
- Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate 041-8611, Japan;
| | - Weeranuch Lang
- Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan; (W.L.); (T.T.); (M.O.)
| | - Takayoshi Tagami
- Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan; (W.L.); (T.T.); (M.O.)
| | - Masayuki Okuyama
- Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan; (W.L.); (T.T.); (M.O.)
| | - Atsuo Kimura
- Research Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan; (W.L.); (T.T.); (M.O.)
- Correspondence: (Y.K.); (A.K.)
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6
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Wardman JF, Bains RK, Rahfeld P, Withers SG. Carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) in the gut microbiome. Nat Rev Microbiol 2022; 20:542-556. [PMID: 35347288 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-022-00712-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The 1013-1014 microorganisms present in the human gut (collectively known as the human gut microbiota) dedicate substantial percentages of their genomes to the degradation and uptake of carbohydrates, indicating the importance of this class of molecules. Carbohydrates function not only as a carbon source for these bacteria but also as a means of attachment to the host, and a barrier to infection of the host. In this Review, we focus on the diversity of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes), how gut microorganisms use them for carbohydrate degradation, the different chemical mechanisms of these CAZymes and the roles that these microorganisms and their CAZymes have in human health and disease. We also highlight examples of how enzymes from this treasure trove have been used in manipulation of the microbiota for improved health and treatment of disease, in remodelling the glycans on biopharmaceuticals and in the potential production of universal O-type donor blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob F Wardman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Rajneesh K Bains
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Peter Rahfeld
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Stephen G Withers
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. .,Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. .,Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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Mészáros Z, Nekvasilová P, Bojarová P, Křen V, Slámová K. Reprint of: Advanced glycosidases as ingenious biosynthetic instruments. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 51:107820. [PMID: 34462167 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Until recently, glycosidases, naturally hydrolyzing carbohydrate-active enzymes, have found few synthetic applications in industry, being primarily used for cleaving unwanted carbohydrates. With the establishment of glycosynthase and transglycosidase technology by genetic engineering, the view of glycosidases as industrial biotechnology tools has started to change. Their easy production, affordability, robustness, and substrate versatility, added to the possibility of controlling undesired side hydrolysis by enzyme engineering, have made glycosidases competitive synthetic tools. Current promising applications of engineered glycosidases include the production of well-defined chitooligomers, precious galactooligosaccharides or specialty chemicals such as glycosylated flavonoids. Other synthetic pathways leading to human milk oligosaccharides or remodeled antibodies are on the horizon. This work provides an overview of the synthetic achievements to date for glycosidases, emphasizing the latest trends and outlining possible developments in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Mészáros
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic; Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 1903/3, CZ-16628 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Pavlína Nekvasilová
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic; Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 5, CZ-12843, Praha 2, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Bojarová
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Křen
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic
| | - Kristýna Slámová
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic.
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Wardman JF, Rahfeld P, Liu F, Morgan-Lang C, Sim L, Hallam SJ, Withers SG. Discovery and Development of Promiscuous O-Glycan Hydrolases for Removal of Intact Sialyl T-Antigen. ACS Chem Biol 2021; 16:2004-2015. [PMID: 34309358 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.1c00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Mucin-type O-glycosylation (O-glycosylation) is a common post-translational modification that confers distinct biophysical properties to proteins and plays crucial roles in intercellular signaling. Yet, despite the importance of O-glycans, relatively few tools exist for their analysis and modification. In particular, there is a need for enzymes that can cleave the wide range of O-glycan structures found on protein surfaces, to facilitate glycan profiling and editing. Through functional metagenomic screening of the human gut microbiome, we discovered endo-O-glycan hydrolases from CAZy family GH101 that are capable of slowly cleaving the intact sialyl T-antigen trisaccharide (a ubiquitous O-glycan structure in humans) in addition to their primary activity against the T-antigen disaccharide. We then further explored this sequence space through phylogenetic profiling and analysis of representative enzymes, revealing large differences in the levels of this promiscuous activity between enzymes within the family. Through structural and sequence analysis, we identified active site residues that modulate specificity. Through subsequent rational protein engineering, we improved the activity of an enzyme identified by phylogenetic profiling sufficiently that substantial removal of the intact sialyl T-antigen from proteins could be readily achieved. Our best sialyl T-antigen hydrolase mutant, SpGH101 Q868G, is further shown to function on a number of proteins, tissues, and cells. Access to this enzyme opens up improved methodologies for unraveling the glycan code.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob F. Wardman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Peter Rahfeld
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Feng Liu
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Connor Morgan-Lang
- Graduate Program in Bioinformatics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Lyann Sim
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Steven J. Hallam
- Graduate Program in Bioinformatics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
- Genome Science and Technology Program, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
- ECOSCOPE Training Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Stephen G. Withers
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
- Genome Science and Technology Program, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- ECOSCOPE Training Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
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9
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Mészáros Z, Nekvasilová P, Bojarová P, Křen V, Slámová K. Advanced glycosidases as ingenious biosynthetic instruments. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 49:107733. [PMID: 33781890 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Until recently, glycosidases, naturally hydrolyzing carbohydrate-active enzymes, have found few synthetic applications in industry, being primarily used for cleaving unwanted carbohydrates. With the establishment of glycosynthase and transglycosidase technology by genetic engineering, the view of glycosidases as industrial biotechnology tools has started to change. Their easy production, affordability, robustness, and substrate versatility, added to the possibility of controlling undesired side hydrolysis by enzyme engineering, have made glycosidases competitive synthetic tools. Current promising applications of engineered glycosidases include the production of well-defined chitooligomers, precious galactooligosaccharides or specialty chemicals such as glycosylated flavonoids. Other synthetic pathways leading to human milk oligosaccharides or remodeled antibodies are on the horizon. This work provides an overview of the synthetic achievements to date for glycosidases, emphasizing the latest trends and outlining possible developments in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Mészáros
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic; Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology Prague, Technická 1903/3, CZ-16628 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Pavlína Nekvasilová
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic; Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 5, CZ-12843, Praha 2, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Bojarová
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Křen
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic
| | - Kristýna Slámová
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, CZ-14220 Praha 4, Czech Republic.
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