Lipid rafts association of synaptotagmin I on synaptic vesicles

Lysophosphatidylcholine binds α-synuclein and prevents its pathological aggregation

Accumulation of aggregated α-synuclein (α-syn) in Lewy bodies is the pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). Genetic mutations in lipid metabolism are causative for a subset of patients with Parkinsonism. The role of α-syn's lipid interactions in its function and aggregation is recognized, yet the specific lipids involved and how lipid metabolism issues trigger α-syn aggregation and neurodegeneration remain unclear. Here, we found that α-syn shows a preference for binding to lysophospholipids (LPLs), particularly targeting lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) without relying on electrostatic interactions. LPC is capable of maintaining α-syn in a compact conformation, significantly reducing its propensity to aggregate both in vitro and within cellular environments. Conversely, a reduction in the production of cellular LPLs is associated with an increase in α-syn accumulation. Our work underscores the critical role of LPLs in preserving the natural conformation of α-syn to inhibit improper aggregation, and establishes a potential connection between lipid metabolic dysfunction and α-syn aggregation in PD.

The Epigenetic Dimension of Protein Structure Is an Intrinsic Weakness of the AlphaFold Program

One of the most important lessons we have learned from sequencing the human genome is that not all proteins have a 3D structure. In fact, a large part of the human proteome is made up of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) which can adopt multiple structures, and therefore, multiple functions, depending on the ligands with which they interact. Under these conditions, one can wonder about the value of algorithms developed for predicting the structure of proteins, in particular AlphaFold, an AI which claims to have solved the problem of protein structure. In a recent study, we highlighted a particular weakness of AlphaFold for membrane proteins. Based on this observation, we have proposed a paradigm, referred to as “Epigenetic Dimension of Protein Structure” (EDPS), which takes into account all environmental parameters that control the structure of a protein beyond the amino acid sequence (hence “epigenetic”). In this new study, we compare the reliability of the AlphaFold and Robetta algorithms’ predictions for a new set of membrane proteins involved in human pathologies. We found that Robetta was generally more accurate than AlphaFold for ascribing a membrane-compatible topology. Raft lipids (e.g., gangliosides), which control the structural dynamics of membrane protein structure through chaperone effects, were identified as major actors of the EDPS paradigm. We conclude that the epigenetic dimension of a protein structure is an intrinsic weakness of AI-based protein structure prediction, especially AlphaFold, which warrants further development.

Hepatic Synaptotagmin 1 is involved in the remodelling of liver plasma- membrane lipid composition and gene expression in male Apoe-deficient mice consuming a Western diet

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The molecular mechanisms by which the liver develops steatotic disease still remain unclear. Previous studies using nutritional and genetic models of hepatic steatosis in mice showed that liver synaptotagmin 1 (Syt1) expression was associated with lipid droplet area. Hepatic Syt1 overexpression was used as a tool to explore its effect on hepatic and plasma lipids.

METHODS AND RESULTS

To find out a cause-effect, hepatic mouse Syt1 mRNA was cloned into a vector driving hepatocyte-specific expression and administered by hydrodynamic injection to male Apoe-deficient mice fed on a Western diet, the latter as a model of rapid spontaneous steatosis development. Hepatic microsomal, large vesicle, lysosomal and plasma membrane fractions were enriched in SYT1 protein following gene overexpression. In these conditions, very low density lipoprotein esterified cholesterol increased. Likewise, the transgene caused an alteration in lipid droplet surface and a positive correlation between Syt1 expression and hepatic total cholesterol content. A lipidomic approach evidenced a decrease in lysophosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylcholine and triglycerides in isolated plasma membrane fraction. Expressions of genes involved in biosynthesis of bile acids, fatty acid metabolism, lipoprotein dynamics and vesicular transport were modified by the increased SYT1 expression.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that this protein is involved in hepatic management of lipids and in the regulation of genes involved in lipid metabolism.

Cholesterol and the Safety Factor for Neuromuscular Transmission

A present review is devoted to the analysis of literature data and results of own research. Skeletal muscle neuromuscular junction is specialized to trigger the striated muscle fiber contraction in response to motor neuron activity. The safety factor at the neuromuscular junction strongly depends on a variety of pre- and postsynaptic factors. The review focuses on the crucial role of membrane cholesterol to maintain a high efficiency of neuromuscular transmission. Cholesterol metabolism in the neuromuscular junction, its role in the synaptic vesicle cycle and neurotransmitter release, endplate electrogenesis, as well as contribution of cholesterol to the synaptogenesis, synaptic integrity, and motor disorders are discussed.

High cholesterol obviates a prolonged hemifusion intermediate in fast SNARE-mediated membrane fusion

Cholesterol is essential for exocytosis in secretory cells, but the exact molecular mechanism by which it facilitates exocytosis is largely unknown. Distinguishing contributions from the lateral organization and dynamics of membrane proteins to vesicle docking and fusion and the promotion of fusion pores by negative intrinsic spontaneous curvature and other mechanical effects of cholesterol have been elusive. To shed more light on this process, we examined the effect of cholesterol on SNARE-mediated membrane fusion in a single-vesicle assay that is capable of resolving docking and elementary steps of fusion with millisecond time resolution. The effect of cholesterol on fusion pore formation between synaptobrevin-2 (VAMP-2)-containing proteoliposomes and acceptor t-SNARE complex-containing planar supported bilayers was examined using both membrane and content fluorescent markers. This approach revealed that increasing cholesterol in either the t-SNARE or the v-SNARE membrane favors a mechanism of direct fusion pore opening, whereas low cholesterol favors a mechanism leading to a long-lived (>5 s) hemifusion state. The amount of cholesterol in the target membrane had no significant effect on docking of synaptobrevin vesicles. Comparative studies with α-tocopherol (vitamin E) show that the negative intrinsic spontaneous curvature of cholesterol and its presumed promotion of a very short-lived (<50 ms) lipid stalk intermediate is the main factor that favors rapid fusion pore opening at high cholesterol. This study also shows that this single-vesicle fusion assay can distinguish between hemifusion and full fusion with only a single lipid dye, thereby freeing up a fluorescence channel for the simultaneous measurement of another parameter in fast time-resolved fusion assays.

α-Synuclein is localized to mitochondria-associated ER membranes

Familial Parkinson disease is associated with mutations in α-synuclein (α-syn), a presynaptic protein that has been localized not only to the cytosol, but also to mitochondria. We report here that wild-type α-syn from cell lines, and brain tissue from humans and mice, is present not in mitochondria but rather in mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes (MAM), a structurally and functionally distinct subdomain of the ER. Remarkably, we found that pathogenic point mutations in human α-syn result in its reduced association with MAM, coincident with a lower degree of apposition of ER with mitochondria, a decrease in MAM function, and an increase in mitochondrial fragmentation compared with wild-type. Although overexpression of wild-type α-syn in mutant α-syn-expressing cells reverted the fragmentation phenotype, neither overexpression of the mitochondrial fusion/MAM-tethering protein MFN2 nor inhibition/ablation of the mitochondrial fission protein DRP1 was able to do so, implying that α-syn operates downstream of the mitochondrial fusion/fission machinery. These novel results indicate that wild-type α-syn localizes to the MAM and modulates mitochondrial morphology, and that these behaviors are impaired by pathogenic mutations in α-syn. We believe that our results have far-reaching implications for both our understanding of α-syn biology and the treatment of synucleinopathies.

Cholesterol and F-actin are required for clustering of recycling synaptic vesicle proteins in the presynaptic plasma membrane

Synaptic vesicles (SVs) and their proteins must be recycled for sustained synaptic transmission. We tested the hypothesis that SV cholesterol is required for proper sorting of SV proteins during recycling in live presynaptic terminals. We used the reversible block of endocytosis in the Drosophila temperature-sensitive dynamin mutant shibire-ts1 to trap exocytosed SV proteins, and then examined the effect of experimental treatments on the distribution of these proteins within the presynaptic plasma membrane by confocal microscopy. SV proteins synaptotagmin, vglut and csp were clustered following SV trapping in control experiments but dispersed in samples treated with the cholesterol chelator methyl-β-cyclodextrin to extract SV cholesterol. There was accumulation of phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate (PIP2) in presynaptic terminals following SV trapping and this was reduced following SV cholesterol extraction. Reduced PIP2 accumulation was associated with disrupted accumulation of actin in presynaptic terminals. Similar to vesicular cholesterol extraction, disruption of actin by latrunculin A after SV proteins had been trapped on the plasma membrane resulted in the dispersal of SV proteins and prevented recovery of synaptic transmission due to impaired endocytosis following relief of the endocytic block. Our results demonstrate that vesicular cholesterol is required for aggregation of exocytosed SV proteins in the presynaptic plasma membrane and are consistent with a mechanism involving regulation of PIP2 accumulation and local actin polymerization by cholesterol. Thus, alteration of membrane or SV lipids may affect the ability of synapses to undergo sustained synaptic transmission by compromising the recycling of SV proteins.

Ceramide function in the brain: when a slight tilt is enough

Ceramide, the precursor of all complex sphingolipids, is a potent signaling molecule that mediates key events of cellular pathophysiology. In the nervous system, the sphingolipid metabolism has an important impact. Neurons are polarized cells and their normal functions, such as neuronal connectivity and synaptic transmission, rely on selective trafficking of molecules across plasma membrane. Sphingolipids are abundant on neural cellular membranes and represent potent regulators of brain homeostasis. Ceramide intracellular levels are fine-tuned and alteration of the sphingolipid-ceramide profile contributes to the development of age-related, neurological and neuroinflammatory diseases. The purpose of this review is to guide the reader towards a better understanding of the sphingolipid-ceramide pathway system. First, ceramide biology is presented including structure, physical properties and metabolism. Second, we describe the function of ceramide as a lipid second messenger in cell physiology. Finally, we highlight the relevance of sphingolipids and ceramide in the progression of different neurodegenerative diseases.

Lipid rafts, synaptic transmission and plasticity: impact in age-related neurodegenerative diseases

The synapse is a crowded area. In the last years, the concept that proteins can be organized in different membrane domains according to their structure has emerged. Cholesterol-rich membrane domains, or lipid rafts, form an organized portion of the membrane that is thought to concentrate signaling molecules. Accumulating evidence has shown that both the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic sites are highly enriched in lipid rafts, which are likely to organize and maintain synaptic proteins in their precise localization. Here we review recent studies highlighting the importance of lipid rafts for synaptic function and plasticity, as well as their relevance for age or disease-related cognitive impairment. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Cognitive Enhancers'.

Vesicular sterols are essential for synaptic vesicle cycling

Synaptic vesicles have a high sterol content, but the importance of vesicular sterols during vesicle recycling is unclear. We used the Drosophila temperature-sensitive dynamin mutant, shibire-ts1, to block endocytosis of recycling synaptic vesicles and to trap them reversibly at the plasma membrane where they were accessible to sterol extraction. Depletion of sterols from trapped vesicles prevented recovery of synaptic transmission after removal of the endocytic block. Measurement of vesicle recycling with synaptopHluorin, FM1-43, and FM4-64 demonstrated impaired membrane retrieval after vesicular sterol depletion. When plasma membrane sterols were extracted before vesicle trapping, no vesicle recycling defects were observed. Ultrastructural analysis indicated accumulation of endosomes and a defect in the formation of synaptic vesicles in synaptic terminals subjected to vesicular sterol depletion. Our results demonstrate the importance of a high vesicular sterol concentration for endocytosis and suggest that vesicular and membrane sterol pools do not readily intermingle during vesicle recycling.

Cholesterol, regulated exocytosis and the physiological fusion machine

Exocytosis is a highly conserved and essential process. Although numerous proteins are involved throughout the exocytotic process, the defining membrane fusion step appears to occur through a lipid-dominated mechanism. Here we review and integrate the current literature on protein and lipid roles in exocytosis, with emphasis on the multiple roles of cholesterol in exocytosis and membrane fusion, in an effort to promote a more molecular systems-level view of the as yet poorly understood process of Ca2+-triggered membrane mergers.