Isolation and properties of flight muscle mitochondria of the bumblebee Bombus terrestris (L.)

Chronic changes in developmental oxygen have little effect on mitochondria and tracheal density in the endothermic moth Manduca sexta

Oxygen availability during development is known to impact the development of insect respiratory and metabolic systems. Drosophila adult tracheal density exhibits developmental plasticity in response to hypoxic or hyperoxic oxygen levels during larval development. Respiratory systems of insects with higher aerobic demands, such as those that are facultative endotherms, may be even more responsive to oxygen levels above or below normoxia during development. The moth Manduca sexta is a large endothermic flying insect that serves as a good study system to start answering questions about developmental plasticity. In this study, we examined the effect of developmental oxygen levels (hypoxia: 10% oxygen, and hyperoxia: 30% oxygen) on the respiratory and metabolic phenotype of adult moths, focusing on morphological and physiological cellular and intercellular changes in phenotype. Mitochondrial respiration rate in permeabilized and isolated flight muscle was measured in adults. We found that permeabilized flight muscle fibers from the hypoxic group had increased mitochondrial oxygen consumption, but this was not replicated in isolated flight muscle mitochondria. Morphological changes in the trachea were examined using confocal imaging. We used transmission electron microscopy to quantify muscle and mitochondrial density in the flight muscle. The respiratory morphology was not significantly different between developmental oxygen groups. These results suggest that the developing M. sexta trachea and mitochondrial respiration have limited developmental plasticity when faced with rearing at 10% or 30% oxygen.

Methylene blue can act as an antidote to pesticide poisoning of bumble bee mitochondria

The population of bumble bees and other pollinators has considerably declined worldwide, probably, due to the toxic effect of pesticides used in agriculture. Inexpensive and available antidotes can be one of the solutions for the problem of pesticide toxicity for pollinators. We studied the properties of the thiazine dye Methylene blue (MB) as an antidote against the toxic action of pesticides in the bumble bee mitochondria and found that MB stimulated mitochondrial respiration mediated by Complex I of the electron transport chain (ETC) and increased respiration of the mitochondria treated with mitochondria-targeted (chlorfenapyr, hydramethylnon, pyridaben, tolfenpyrad, and fenazaquin) and non-mitochondrial (deltamethrin, metribuzin, and penconazole) pesticides. MB also restored the mitochondrial membrane potential dissipated by the pesticides affecting the ETC. The mechanism of MB action is most probably related to its ability to shunt electron flow in the mitochondrial ETC.

Biochemical, molecular, and morphological variations of flight muscles before and after dispersal flight in a eusocial termite, Reticulitermes chinensis

Swarming behavior facilitates pair formation, and therefore mating, in many eusocial termites. However, the physiological adjustments and morphological transformations of the flight muscles involved in flying and flightless insect forms are still unclear. Here, we found that the dispersal flight of the eusocial termite Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder led to a gradual decrease in adenosine triphosphate supply from oxidative phosphorylation, as well as a reduction in the activities of critical mitochondrial respiratory enzymes from preflight to dealation. Correspondingly, using three-dimensional reconstruction and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the flight muscles were found to be gradually deteriorated during this process. In particular, two tergo-pleural muscles (IItpm5 and III-tpm5) necessary to adjust the rotation of wings for wing shedding behavior were present only in flying alates. These findings suggest that flight muscle systems vary in function and morphology to facilitate the swarming flight procedure, which sheds light on the important role of swarming in successful extension and fecundity of eusocial termites.

Method for detection of mtDNA damages for evaluating of pesticides toxicity for bumblebees (Bombus terrestris L.)

Bumblebees are important for crop pollination. Currently, the number of pollinators is decreasing worldwide, which is attributed mostly to the widespread use of pesticides. The aim of this work was to develop a method for assessing the genotoxicity of pesticides for the Bombus terrestris L. bumblebee using long-range PCR of mitochondrial DNA fragments. We have developed a panel of primers and assessed the genotoxicity of the following pesticides: imidacloprid, rotenone, deltamethrin, difenocanozole, malathion, metribuzin, penconazole, esfenvalerate, and dithianon. All pesticides (except imidacloprid) inhibited mitochondrial respiration fueled by pyruvate + malate; the strongest effect was observed for rotenone and difenocanozole. Three pesticides (dithianon, rotenone, and difenocanozole) affected the rate of H₂O₂ production. To study the pesticide-induced DNA damage in vitro and in vivo, we used three different mtDNA. The mtDNA damage was observed for all studied pesticides. Most of the studied pesticides caused significant damage to mtDNA in vitro and in vivo when ingested. Our results indicate that all tested pesticides, including herbicides and fungicides, can have a toxic effect on pollinators. However, the extent of pesticide-induced mtDNA damage in the flight muscles was significantly less upon the contact compared to the oral administration.

Ethanedinitrile as a Fumigant for Lasioderma serricorne (Coleoptera: Anobiidae), and Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae): Toxicity and Mode of Action

This study evaluated the fumigant ethanedinitrile (EDN) against the cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne, and phosphine-resistant and susceptible lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica, life stages under laboratory conditions. Eggs of both species were the most susceptible stage to EDN. EDN is, therefore, a promising alternative because eggs are generally tolerant to most common fumigants. Lasioderma serricorne eggs were the most susceptible with an LC50 estimated of 50.4 ppm, followed by adults, pupae and larvae with LC50 values of 160.2, 192.5, and 446.6 ppm, respectively, after 24-h exposure at 25°C. Eggs of phosphine-susceptible (LC50 = 11.2 ppm) and resistant (LC50 = 12.0 ppm) R. dominica strains were more susceptible to EDN than were adults of both strains, with LC50 values of 27.7 and 36.0 ppm, respectively. Lasioderma serricorne mixed life stage cultures were completely controlled at concentrations ≥2,000 ppm at 24 h. Fumigation with 600 ppm was enough to suppress adult emergence in the case of the phosphine-susceptible R. dominica strain (USDA), while an average of only 4.0 adults emerged from the phosphine-resistant R. dominica strain (Belle Glade) compared with 514.3 adults in the control. Lasioderma serricorne was more tolerant to EDN than both R. dominica strains. EDN caused 61.8 and 68.2 % inhibition of R. dominica (USDA) cytochrome c oxidase activity at concentrations of 0.0038 and 0.0076 mM in vitro, respectively, and it did not inhibit its activity in the case of an in vivo assay. These results suggest that cytochrome c oxidase may not be the main target for EDN toxicity.

Unique features of flight muscles mitochondria of honey bees (Apis mellifera L.)

Honey bees Apis mellifera L. are one of the most studied insect species due to their economic importance. The interest in studying honey bees chiefly stems from the recent rapid decrease in their world population, which has become a problem of food security. Nevertheless, there are no systemic studies on the properties of the mitochondria of honey bee flight muscles. We conducted a research of the mitochondria of the flight muscles of A. mellifera L. The influence of various organic substrates on mitochondrial respiration in the presence or absence of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) was investigated. We demonstrated that pyruvate is the optimal substrate for the coupled respiration. A combination of pyruvate and glutamate is required for the maximal respiration rate. We also show that succinate oxidation does not support the oxidative phosphorylation and the generation of membrane potential. We also studied the production of reactive oxygen species by isolated mitochondria. The greatest production of H₂ O₂ (as a percentage of the rate of oxygen consumed) in the absence of ADP was observed during the respiration supported by α-glycerophosphate, malate, and a combination of malate with another NAD-linked substrate. We showed that honey bee flight muscle mitochondria are unable to uptake Ca²⁺ -ions. We also show that bee mitochondria are able to oxidize the respiration substrates effectively at the temperature of 50°С compared to Bombus terrestris mitochondria, which were more adapted to lower temperatures.

Proline as a fuel for insect flight: enhancing carbohydrate oxidation in hymenopterans

Bees are thought to be strict users of carbohydrates as metabolic fuel for flight. Many insects, however, have the ability to oxidize the amino acid proline at a high rate, which is a unique feature of this group of animals. The presence of proline in the haemolymph of bees and in the nectar of plants led to the hypothesis that plants may produce proline as a metabolic reward for pollinators. We investigated flight muscle metabolism of hymenopteran species using high-resolution respirometry performed on permeabilized muscle fibres. The muscle fibres of the honeybee, Apis mellifera, do not have a detectable capacity to oxidize proline, as those from the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, used here as an outgroup representative. The closely related bumblebee, Bombus impatiens, can oxidize proline alone and more than doubles its respiratory capacity when proline is combined with carbohydrate-derived substrates. A distant wasp species, Vespula vulgaris, exhibits the same metabolic phenotype as the bumblebee, suggesting that proline oxidation is common in hymenopterans. Using a combination of mitochondrial substrates and inhibitors, we further show that in B. impatiens, proline oxidation provides reducing equivalents and electrons directly to the electron transport system. Together, these findings demonstrate that some bee and wasp species can greatly enhance the oxidation of carbohydrates using proline as fuel for flight.

Mitochondrial glycerol 3-phosphate facilitates bumblebee pre-flight thermogenesis

Bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) fly at low ambient temperatures where other insects cannot, and to do so they must pre-warm their flight muscles. While some have proposed mechanisms, none fully explain how pre-flight thermogenesis occurs. Here, we present a novel hypothesis based on the less studied mitochondrial glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase pathway (mGPDH). Using calorimetry, and high resolution respirometry coupled with fluorimetry, we report substrate oxidation by mGPDH in permeabilised flight muscles operates, in vitro, at a high flux, even in the absence of ADP. This may be facilitated by an endogenous, mGPDH-mediated uncoupling of mitochondria. This uncoupling increases ETS activity, which results in increased heat release. Furthermore, passive regulation of this mechanism is achieved via dampened temperature sensitivity of mGPDH relative to other respiratory pathways, and subsequent consumption of its substrate, glycerol 3-phosphate (G3P), at low temperatures. Mitochondrial GPDH may therefore facilitate pre-flight thermogenesis through poor mitochondrial coupling. We calculate this can occur at a sufficient rate to warm flight muscles until shivering commences, and until flight muscle function is adequate for bumblebees to fly in the cold.

Evaluation of the toxicity of fungicides to flight muscle mitochondria of bumblebee (Bombus terrestris L.)

Insects pollinate 75% of crops used for human consumption. Over the last decade, a substantial reduction in the abundance of pollinating insects has been recorded and recognized as a severe matter for food supply security. Many of the important food crops destined for human consumption are grown in greenhouses. A unique feature of greenhouse agriculture is the extensive use of fungicides to curb multiple fungal infections. The most widely used pollinating insects in greenhouses are commercially reared bumblebees. However, there is no data regarding the toxicity of fungicides to bumblebee mitochondria. To fill this gap in knowledge, we examined the effects of 16 widely used fungicides on the energetics of the flight muscles mitochondria of Bombus terrestris. We found that diniconazole and fludioxonil uncoupled the respiration of mitochondria; dithianon and difenoconazole inhibited it. By analyzing the action of these inhibitors on mitochondrial respiration and generation of reactive oxygen species, we concluded that difenoconazole inhibited electron transport at the level of Complex I and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. Dithianon strongly inhibited succinate dehydrogenase and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. It also strongly inhibited mitochondrial oxidation of NAD-linked substrates or glycerol 3-phosphate, but it had no effect on the enzymatic activity of Complex I. It may be suggested that dithianon inhibits electron transport downstream of Complex I, likely at multiply sites.

Behavioral and metabolic effects of sublethal doses of two insecticides, chlorpyrifos and methomyl, in the Egyptian cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Insecticides have long been used as the main method in limiting agricultural pests, but their widespread use has resulted in environmental pollution, development of resistances, and biodiversity reduction. The effects of insecticides at low residual doses on both the targeted crop pest species and beneficial insects have become a major concern. In particular, these low doses can induce unexpected positive (hormetic) effects on pest insects, such as surges in population growth exceeding what would have been observed without pesticide application. Methomyl and chlorpyrifos are two insecticides commonly used to control the population levels of the cotton leafworm Spodoptera littoralis, a major pest moth. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of sublethal doses of these two pesticides, known to present a residual activity and persistence in the environment, on the moth physiology. Using a metabolomic approach, we showed that sublethal doses of methomyl and chlorpyrifos have a systemic effect on the treated insects. We also demonstrated a behavioral disruption of S. littoralis larvae exposed to sublethal doses of methomyl, whereas no effects were observed for the same doses of chlorpyrifos. Interestingly, we highlighted that sublethal doses of both pesticides did not induce a change in acetylcholinesterase activity in head of exposed larvae.

Comparative studies on mitochondrial electron transport chain complexes of Sitophilus zeamais treated with allyl isothiocyanate and calcium phosphide

With Sitophilus zeamais as the target organism, the present study for the first time attempted to elucidate the comparative effects between allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) and calcium phosphide (Ca3P2), exposure on mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC.) complex I & IV and their downstream effects on enzymes relevant to reactive oxygen species (ROS). In vivo, both AITC and Ca3P2 inhibited complex I and IV with similar downstream effects. In contrast with Ca3P2, the inhibition of complex I caused by AITC was dependent on time and dose. In vitro, AITC inhibited complex IV more significantly than complex I. These results indicate that mitochondrial complex IV is the primary target of AITC, and that complex I is another potential target.

Mitochondrial physiology in the major arbovirus vector Aedes aegypti: substrate preferences and sexual differences define respiratory capacity and superoxide production

Adult females of Aedes aegypti are facultative blood sucking insects and vectors of Dengue and yellow fever viruses. Insect dispersal plays a central role in disease transmission and the extremely high energy demand posed by flight is accomplished by a very efficient oxidative phosphorylation process, which take place within flight muscle mitochondria. These organelles play a central role in energy metabolism, interconnecting nutrient oxidation to ATP synthesis, but also represent an important site of cellular superoxide production. Given the importance of mitochondria to cell physiology, and the potential contributions of this organelle for A. aegypti biology and vectorial capacity, here, we conducted a systematic assessment of mitochondrial physiology in flight muscle of young adult A. aegypti fed exclusively with sugar. This was carried out by determining the activities of mitochondrial enzymes, the substrate preferences to sustain respiration, the mitochondrial bioenergetic efficiency and capacity, in both mitochondria-enriched preparations and mechanically permeabilized flight muscle in both sexes. We also determined the substrates preferences to promote mitochondrial superoxide generation and the main sites where it is produced within this organelle. We observed that respiration in A. aegypti mitochondria was essentially driven by complex I and glycerol 3 phosphate dehydrogenase substrates, which promoted distinct mitochondrial bioenergetic capacities, but with preserved efficiencies. Respiration mediated by proline oxidation in female mitochondria was strikingly higher than in males. Mitochondrial superoxide production was essentially mediated through proline and glycerol 3 phosphate oxidation, which took place at sites other than complex I. Finally, differences in mitochondrial superoxide production among sexes were only observed in male oxidizing glycerol 3 phosphate, exhibiting higher rates than in female. Together, these data represent a significant step towards the understanding of fundamental mitochondrial processes in A. aegypti, with potential implications for its physiology and vectorial capacity.