Adaptation to Antimicrobials and Pathogenicity in Mycoplasmas: Development of Ciprofloxacin-Resistance and Evolution of Virulence in Acholeplasma laidlawii

Development of Resistance to Clarithromycin and Amoxicillin-Clavulanic Acid in Lactiplantibacillus plantarum In Vitro Is Followed by Genomic Rearrangements and Evolution of Virulence

Ensuring the safety of the use of probiotics is a top priority. Obviously, in addition to studying the beneficial properties of lactic acid bacteria, considerable attention should be directed to assessing the virulence of microorganisms as well as investigating the possibility of its evolution under conditions of selective pressure. To assess the virulence of probiotics, it is now recommended to analyze the genomes of bacteria in relation to the profiles of the virulome, resistome, and mobilome as well as the analysis of phenotypic resistance and virulence in vitro. However, the corresponding procedure has not yet been standardized, and virulence analysis of strains in vivo using model organisms has not been performed. Our study is devoted to testing the assumption that the development of antibiotic resistance in probiotic bacteria under conditions of selective pressure of antimicrobial drugs may be accompanied by the evolution of virulence. In this regard, special attention is required for the widespread in nature commensals and probiotic bacteria actively used in pharmacology and the food industry. As a result of step-by-step selection from the Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 8p-a3 strain isolated from the “Lactobacterin” probiotic (Biomed, Russia), the L. plantarum 8p-a3-Clr-Amx strain was obtained, showing increased resistance simultaneously to amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and clarithromycin (antibiotics, the combined use of which is widely used for Helicobacter pylori eradication) compared to the parent strain (MIC_{8p-a3-Clr-Amx} of 20 μg/mL and 10 μg/mL, and MIC_8p-a3 of 0.5 μg/mL and 0.05 μg/mL, respectively). The results of a comparative analysis of antibiotic-resistant and parental strains indicate that the development of resistance to the corresponding antimicrobial drugs in L. plantarum in vitro is accompanied by the following: (i) significant changes in the genomic profile (point mutations as well as deletions, insertions, duplications, and displacement of DNA sequences) associated in part with the resistome and mobilome; (ii) changes in phenotypic sensitivity to a number of antimicrobial drugs; and (iii) an increase in the level of virulence against Drosophila melanogaster, a model organism for which L. plantarum is considered to be a symbiont. The data obtained by us indicate that the mechanisms of adaptation to antimicrobial drugs in L. plantarum are not limited to those described earlier and determine the need for comprehensive studies of antibiotic resistance scenarios as well as the trajectories of virulence evolution in probiotic bacteria in vivo and in vitro to develop a standardized system for detecting virulent strains of the corresponding microorganisms.

IMPORTANCE Ensuring the safety of the use of probiotics is a top priority. We found that increased resistance to popular antimicrobial drugs in Lactiplantibacillus plantarum is accompanied by significant changes in the genomic profile and phenotypic sensitivity to a number of antimicrobial drugs as well as in the level of virulence of this bacterium against Drosophila. The data obtained in our work indicate that the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in this bacterium are not limited to those described earlier and determine the need for comprehensive studies of the potential for the evolution of virulence in lactic acid bacteria in vivo and in vitro and to develop a reliable control system to detect virulent strains among probiotics.