Synergy between Brønsted Acid Sites and Carbonaceous Deposits during Skeletal 1-Butene Isomerization over Ferrierite

During skeletal 1-butene isomerization over ferrierite carbonaceous deposits block 98% of the micropores within 24 h, rendering them effectively inaccessible to reactants, while the catalytic activity improves continuously for 100 h on stream. Ex-situ pyridine adsorption shows that the concentration of conventional Brønsted acid sites in the 10-R channels decreases below the detection threshold of infrared spectroscopy within 2 h. However, the operando addition of the base triethyl amine to the feed quenches the reaction, showing that mediated acidity is necessary. The larger base 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl piperidine only deactivates catalytic activity after several hours because it cannot directly bind to active sites at the sterically restricted pore mouths. The communication of internal Brønsted acid sites to the external reactants via a concerted mechanism involving protonated monoaromatic deposits trapped in the pore mouths explains the promoting effects of coke species in zeolite-catalyzed skeletal butene isomerization. This work presents a consolidated explanation of the synergy of solid acidity, structural confinement, and carbonaceous deposits in zeolites.

Advanced zeolite and ordered mesoporous silica-based catalysts for the conversion of CO2 to chemicals and fuels

For many years, capturing, storing or sequestering CO₂ from concentrated emission sources or from air has been a powerful technique for reducing atmospheric CO₂. Moreover, the use of CO₂ as a C1 building block to mitigate CO₂ emissions and, at the same time, produce sustainable chemicals or fuels is a challenging and promising alternative to meet global demand for chemicals and energy. Hence, the chemical incorporation and conversion of CO₂ into valuable chemicals has received much attention in the last decade, since CO₂ is an abundant, inexpensive, nontoxic, nonflammable, and renewable one-carbon building block. Nevertheless, CO₂ is the most oxidized form of carbon, thermodynamically the most stable form and kinetically inert. Consequently, the chemical conversion of CO₂ requires highly reactive, rich-energy substrates, highly stable products to be formed or harder reaction conditions. The use of catalysts constitutes an important tool in the development of sustainable chemistry, since catalysts increase the rate of the reaction without modifying the overall standard Gibbs energy in the reaction. Therefore, special attention has been paid to catalysis, and in particular to heterogeneous catalysis because of its environmentally friendly and recyclable nature attributed to simple separation and recovery, as well as its applicability to continuous reactor operations. Focusing on heterogeneous catalysts, we decided to center on zeolite and ordered mesoporous materials due to their high thermal and chemical stability and versatility, which make them good candidates for the design and development of catalysts for CO₂ conversion. In the present review, we analyze the state of the art in the last 25 years and the potential opportunities for using zeolite and OMS (ordered mesoporous silica) based materials to convert CO₂ into valuable chemicals essential for our daily lives and fuels, and to pave the way towards reducing carbon footprint. In this review, we have compiled, to the best of our knowledge, the different reactions involving catalysts based on zeolites and OMS to convert CO₂ into cyclic and dialkyl carbonates, acyclic carbamates, 2-oxazolidones, carboxylic acids, methanol, dimethylether, methane, higher alcohols (C₂₊OH), C₂₊ (gasoline, olefins and aromatics), syngas (RWGS, dry reforming of methane and alcohols), olefins (oxidative dehydrogenation of alkanes) and simple fuels by photoreduction. The use of advanced zeolite and OMS-based materials, and the development of new processes and technologies should provide a new impulse to boost the conversion of CO₂ into chemicals and fuels.

Active Sites in H-Mordenite Catalysts Probed by NMR and FTIR

Mordenites are widely used in catalysis and environmental protection. The catalytic properties of mordenite are largely determined by the composition of its crystal framework, i.e., the SiO2/Al2O3 molar ratio (MR), and the cationic form. In H-mordenites, the most important characteristic becomes the structure and distribution of acid sites, which depends on the number and distribution of Al tetrahedra in the framework. In the present work, the local structure of these centers in H-mordenite catalysts with a nominal MR varied from 9.9 to 19.8 was studied in detail using a combination of magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (MAS NMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). 27Al MAS NMR indicates the presence of extra-framework Al in most of the studied samples that results in a higher real MR of the zeolitic framework compared to the nominal value. Concentrations of Lewis and Brønsted acid sites, as well as of silanol groups were estimated by elemental analysis, NMR, and FTIR spectroscopy. The values of site concentrations obtained from band intensities of adsorbed CO and those of OH groups are compared with the amount of framework and extra-framework aluminum. The advantages and restrictions of different methods of active site characterization are discussed.

Surface and Bulk Chemistry of Mechanochemically Synthesized Tohdite Nanoparticles

Aluminum oxides, oxyhydroxides, and hydroxides are important in different fields of application due to their many attractive properties. However, among these materials, tohdite (5Al₂O₃·H₂O) is probably the least known because of the harsh conditions required for its synthesis. Herein, we report a straightforward methodology to synthesize tohdite nanopowders (particle diameter ∼13 nm, specific surface area ∼102 m² g^-1) via the mechanochemically induced dehydration of boehmite (γ-AlOOH). High tohdite content (about 80%) is achieved upon mild ball milling (400 rpm for 48 h in a planetary ball mill) without process control agents. The addition of AlF₃ can promote the crystallization of tohdite by preventing the formation of the most stable α-Al₂O₃, resulting in the formation of almost phase-pure tohdite. The availability of easily accessible tohdite samples allowed comprehensive characterization by powder X-ray diffraction, total scattering analysis, solid-state NMR (¹H and ²⁷Al), N₂-sorption, electron microscopy, and simultaneous thermal analysis (TG-DSC). Thermal stability evaluation of the samples combined with structural characterization evidenced a low-temperature transformation sequence: 5Al₂O₃·H₂O → κ-Al₂O₃ → α-Al₂O₃. Surface characterization via DRIFTS, ATR-FTIR, D/H exchange experiments, pyridine-FTIR, and NH₃-TPD provided further insights into the material properties.

Tuning the catalytic acidity in Al2O3 nanofibers with mordenite nanocrystals for dehydration reactions

The chemical and structural properties of Al2O3 are tuned for dehydration reactions. The synergy between the structured Al2O3 shaped as nanofiber and the acid site nature of the zeolite mordenite in the nanofiber improves the dehydration reaction.

Combination of Cu/ZnO Methanol Synthesis Catalysts and ZSM-5 Zeolites to Produce Oxygenates from CO2 and H2

Cu/ZnO methanol catalysts were deposited over several ZSM-5 acid zeolites to directly synthesise oxygenates (methanol and dimethyl ether) from a CO2/H2 feed. Catalysts were prepared by two different preparation methodologies: chemical vapour impregnation (CZZ-CVI) and oxalate gel precipitation (CZZ-OG). Chemical vapour impregnation led to Cu/ZnO being deposited on the zeolite surface, whilst oxalate gel precipitation led to the formation of Cu/ZnO agglomerates. For both sets of catalysts a higher concentration of mild and strong acid sites were produced, compared to the parent ZSM-5 zeolites, and CZZ-CVI had a higher concentration of acid sites compared to CZZ-OG. Nevertheless, CZZ-OG shows considerably higher oxygenate productivity, 1322 mmol Kgcat−1 h−1, compared to 192 mmol Kgcat−1 h−1 over CZZ-CVI (ZSM-5(50), 250 ℃, 20 bar, CO2/H2 = 1/3, 30 ml min−1), which could be assigned to a combination of smaller particle size and enhanced methanol mass transfer within the zeolites.

Direct Synthesis of Dimethyl Ether from CO2: Recent Advances in Bifunctional/Hybrid Catalytic Systems

Dimethyl ether (DME) is a versatile raw material and an interesting alternative fuel that can be produced by the catalytic direct hydrogenation of CO2. Recently, this process has attracted the attention of the industry due to the environmental benefits of CO2 elimination from the atmosphere and its lower operating costs with respect to the classical, two-step synthesis of DME from syngas (CO + H2). However, due to kinetics and thermodynamic limits, the direct use of CO2 as raw material for DME production requires the development of more effective catalysts. In this context, the objective of this review is to present the latest progress achieved in the synthesis of bifunctional/hybrid catalytic systems for the CO2-to-DME process. For catalyst design, this process is challenging because it should combine metal and acid functionalities in the same catalyst, in a correct ratio and with controlled interaction. The metal catalyst is needed for the activation and transformation of the stable CO2 molecules into methanol, whereas the acid catalyst is needed to dehydrate the methanol into DME. Recent developments in the catalyst design have been discussed and analyzed in this review, presenting the different strategies employed for the preparation of novel bifunctional catalysts (physical/mechanical mixing) and hybrid catalysts (co-precipitation, impregnation, etc.) with improved efficiency toward DME formation. Finally, an outline of future prospects for the research and development of efficient bi-functional/hybrid catalytic systems will be presented.

Synthesis of Dimethyl Ether via CO2 Hydrogenation: Effect of the Drying Technique of Alumina on Properties and Performance of Alumina-Supported Copper Catalysts

Thermal treatment during catalyst preparation is one of the important factors affecting the characteristics and performance of a catalyst. To improve the catalytic performance of an alumina-supported copper catalyst prepared by an impregnation method for dimethyl ether (DME) synthesis from CO₂, the effects of the use of hot air and infrared drying as well as calcination at 600 and 900 °C to prepare alumina supports were investigated. Infrared drying could shorten the required drying time by 75% when compared with hot air drying. Infrared drying could also help maintain the pore size and pore volume of the supports, leading to their larger surface areas. Different drying techniques were additionally noted to result in different sizes and shapes of the pores as well as to different copper distributions and intensities of acid sites of the catalyst. An increase in the calcination temperature resulted in a decrease in the surface area of the supports because of particle aggregation. The drying technique exhibited a more significant effect than calcination temperature on the space-time yield of DME. A catalyst utilizing the support prepared by infrared drying and then calcined at 600 °C exhibited the highest yield of DME (40.9 g_DME kg_cat ^-1 h^-1) at a reaction temperature of 300 °C. Stability of the optimal catalyst, when monitored over a 24 h period, was noted to be excellent.