Sodium intake and preterm babies

Excessive sodium supplementation but not fluid load is correlated with overall morbidity in extremely low birth weight infants

Objectives

Sodium homeostasis in extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants is critical. While a lack of sodium delays growth, excessive supplementation increases morbidity.

Methods

We performed a single-center retrospective study on sodium and fluid management during the first 2 weeks of live including all ELBW infants born between June 1, 2017 and May 31, 2019.

Results

Forty-seven patients (median GA 26 + 6 weeks, median BW 845 g) were included. Mean sodium intake was above the ESPGHAN recommendation, 4.58 mmol/kg/day during the first 2 days and 1.99 mmol/kg/day during the following period. Incidence of PDA, IVH, and ROP was directly associated with sodium intake (OR 1.6, 1.3, and 1.4, respectively), but not with fluid supplementation. No association to BPD was found. The most important source for inadvertent sodium intake were 0.9% saline given by arterial lines. Sodium supplementation did not correlate directly with serum sodium levels, but a linear regression model combining sodium intake and fluid supplementation was able to predict serum sodium changes 24-48 h in advance (correlation coefficient of 0.294, p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Sodium application substantially exceeded ESPGHAN recommendations in ELBW infants. An excess in sodium was associated with an overall increased morbidity, justifying increased efforts to identify inadvertent sodium sources in these patients with the aim to decrease sodium excess.

The Impact of Hypernatremia in Preterm Infants on Neurodevelopmental Outcome at 18 Months of Corrected Age

OBJECTIVE

The study objective was to assess the correlation between hypernatremia during the first week of life and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 months of corrected age in premature infants.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective observational study of preterm infants born at less than 32 weeks of gestation who had a neurodevelopmental assessment with the Bayley scales of infant and toddler development III at 18 ± 6 months of corrected age. Serum sodium levels from birth through 7 days of life were collected. The study cohort was divided into two groups: infants with a peak serum sodium of >145 mmol/L (hypernatremia group) and infants with a peak serum sodium level of <145 mmol/L (no hypernatremia group). Prenatal, intrapartum, and postnatal hospital course and neurodevelopmental data at 18 ± 6 months were collected. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the correlation between neonatal hypernatremia and neurodevelopment with adjustment for selected population characteristics.

RESULTS

Eighty-eight preterm infants with complete neurodevelopmental outcome data at 18 ± 6 months of corrected gestational age were included in the study. Thirty-five neonates were in the hypernatremia group and 53 were in the no hypernatremia group. Maternal and neonatal characteristics were similar between the two groups except that the hypernatremia group had a significantly lower average birth weight and gestational age. Comparison of the mean neurodevelopmental scores between the two groups showed that patients in the hypernatremia group as compared with those in the no hypernatremia group had significantly lower neurodevelopmental scaled scores in the fine motor domain (p = 0.01). This difference remained significant (p = 0.03, odds ratio [OR] = 0.8, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.6-0.97) when adjusted for birth weight and gestational age.

CONCLUSION

Preterm infants born at less than 32 weeks of gestation with hypernatremia in the first week of life have lower fine motor scores at 18 months of corrected age.

KEY POINTS

· Hypernatremia is a common electrolyte disturbance in preterm neonates.. · Hypernatremia may be associated with long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants.. · Hypernatremia is a potentially modifiable risk factor..

ELBW infants receive inadvertent sodium load above the recommended intake

BACKGROUND

To determine total sodium load, including inadvertent load, during the first 2 postnatal weeks, and its influence on serum sodium, morbidity, and mortality in extremely low birth weight (ELBW, birth weight <1000 g) infants and to calculate sodium replacement models.

METHODS

Retrospective data analysis on ELBW infants with a gestational age <28 + 0/7 weeks.

RESULTS

Ninety patients with a median birth weight of 718 g and a median gestational age of 24 + 6/7 weeks were included. Median sodium intake during the first 2 postnatal weeks was 10.2 mmol/kg/day, which was significantly higher than recommended (2-5 mmol/kg/day). Sodium intake did not affect the risk for hypernatremia. Each mmol of sodium intake during the first postnatal week was associated with an increased risk of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (45%) and higher-grade intraventricular hemorrhage (31%), during the second postnatal week for necrotizing enterocolitis (19%), and during both postnatal weeks of mortality (13%). Calculations of two sodium replacement models resulted in a decrease in sodium intake during the first postnatal week of 3.2 and 4.0 mmol/kg/day, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Sodium load during the first 2 postnatal weeks of ELBW infants was significantly higher than recommended owing to inadvertent sodium intake and was associated with a higher risk of subsequent morbidity and mortality, although the study design does not allow conclusions on causality. Replacement of 0.9% saline with alternative carrier solutions might reduce sodium intake.

IMPACT

Sodium intake in ELBW infants during the first 2 postnatal weeks was twofold to threefold higher than recommended; this was mainly caused by inadvertent sodium components. High sodium intake is not related to severe hypernatremia but might be associated with a higher morbidity in terms of BPD, IVH, and NEC. Inadvertent sodium load can be reduced by replacing high sodium-containing carrier solutions with high levels of sodium with alternative hypotonic and/or balanced fluids, model based.

Renal consequences of preterm birth

Background

The developmental origin of health and disease concept identifies the brain, cardiovascular, liver, and kidney systems as targets of fetal adverse programming with adult consequences. As the limits of viability in premature infants have been pushed to lower gestational ages, the long-term impact of prematurity on kidneys still remains a significant burden during hospital stay and beyond.

Objectives

The purpose of this study is to summarize available evidence, mechanisms, and short- and long-term renal consequences of prematurity and identify nephroprotective strategies and areas of uncertainty.

Results

Kidney size and nephron number are known to be reduced in surviving premature infants due to disruption of organogenesis at a crucial developmental time point. Inflammation, hyperoxia, and antiangiogenic factors play a role in epigenetic conditioning with potential life-long consequences. Additional kidney injury from hypoperfusion and nephrotoxicity results in structural and functional changes over time which are often unnoticed. Nephropathy of prematurity and acute kidney injury confound glomerular and tubular maturation of preterm kidneys. Kidney protective strategies may ameliorate growth failure and suboptimal neurodevelopmental outcomes in the short term. In later life, subclinical chronic renal disease may progress, even in asymptomatic survivors.

Conclusion

Awareness of renal implications of therapeutic interventions and renal conservation efforts may lead to a variety of short and long-term benefits. Adequate monitoring and supplementation of microelement losses, gathering improved data on renal handling, and exploration of new avenues such as reliable markers of injury and new therapeutic strategies in contemporary populations, as well as long-term follow-up of renal function, is warranted.

Does parenteral nutrition influence electrolyte and fluid balance in preterm infants in the first days after birth?

Background

New national guidelines recommend more restricted fluid intake and early initiation of total parenteral nutrition (TPN) in very preterm infants. The aim was study the effect of these guidelines on serum sodium and potassium levels and fluid balance in the first three days after birth.

Methods

Two cohorts of infants <28 weeks gestational age, born at the Leiden University Medical Center in the Netherlands, were compared retrospectively before (2002–2004, late-TPN) and after (2006–2007, early-TPN) introduction of the new Dutch guideline. Outcome measures were serum sodium and potassium levels, diuresis, and changes in body weight in the first three postnatal days.

Results

In the first three postnatal days no differences between late-TPN (N = 70) and early-TPN cohort (N = 73) in mean (SD) serum sodium (141.1 (3.8) vs 141.0 (3.7) mmol/l) or potassium (4.3 (0.5) vs 4.3 (0.5) mmol/l) were found, but in the early-TPN cohort diuresis (4.5 (1.6) vs 3.2 (1.4) ml/kg/h) and loss of body weight were decreased (−6.0% (7.7) vs −0.8% (8.0)).

Conclusions

Initiation of TPN immediately after birth and restricted fluid intake in very preterm infants do not seem to influence serum sodium and potassium levels in first three postnatal days. Further research is needed to see if a decreased diuresis and loss of body weight in the first days is the result of a delayed postnatal adaptation or better energy balance.

Hypernatraemia in preterm infants born at less than 27 weeks gestation

AIMS

To study the incidence of hypernatraemia (plasma sodium >145 mmol/L), identify predisposing factors to and associated complications of hypernatraemia in preterm infants born less than 27 weeks gestation in the first 5 days of life.

METHODS

Preterm infants less than 27 week gestation over an 18-month period were studied by retrospective analysis of patient records. Data were collected on gestation, birthweight, sex, antenatal steroid use, phototherapy, incubator humidity, time of transfer to incubator, plasma sodium, urea and creatinine. Actual fluid and sodium intake was calculated for the first 5 days of life. Data were collected on chronic lung disease, patent ductus arteriosus, intraventricular haemorrhage, necrotising enterocolitis and death.

RESULTS

In this study 46 (69.7%) of 66 infants studied developed hypernatraemia (>145 mmol/L), occurring most frequently between 24 and 48 h of age. The median gestation of hypernatraemic babies was significantly lower. There was no significant difference in median birthweight, or factors associated with increased insensible water loss between the hypernatraemic and the non-hypernatraemic groups. Fluid intake was significantly higher on days 2, 3 and 4 in the hypernatraemic group. There was no difference in sodium intake between the two groups. More hypernatraemic babies compared with controls developed chronic lung disease, patent ductus arteriosus, significant intraventricular haemorrhage, necrotising enterocolitis and died, but was not significant.

CONCLUSION

Hypernatraemia occurs commonly in preterm infants less than 27 weeks gestation and was not associated with significant morbidity. The more immature infants developed hypernatraemia and all cases resolved after increasing fluid intake.

Randomised trial of fluid restriction in ventilated very low birthweight infants

BACKGROUND

Fluid restriction has been reported to improve survival of infants without chronic lung disease (CLD), but it remains unknown whether it reduces CLD in a population at high risk of CLD routinely exposed to antenatal steroids and postnatal surfactant without increasing other adverse outcomes.

AIM

To investigate the impact of fluid restriction on the outcome of ventilated, very low birthweight infants.

STUDY DESIGN

A randomised trial of two fluid input levels in the perinatal period was performed. A total of 168 ventilated infants (median gestational age 27 weeks (range 23-33)) were randomly assigned to receive standard volumes of fluid (60 ml/kg on day 1 progressing to 150 ml/kg on day 7) or be restricted to about 80% of standard input.

RESULTS

Similar proportions of infants on the two regimens had CLD beyond 28 days (56% v 51%) and 36 weeks post conceptional age (26% v 25%), survived without oxygen dependency at 28 days (31% v 27%) and 36 weeks post conceptional age (58% v 52%), and developed acute renal failure. There were no statistically significant differences between other outcomes, except that fewer of the restricted group (19% v 43%) required postnatal steroids (p < 0.01). In the trial population overall, duration of oxygen dependency related significantly to the colloid (p < 0.01), but not crystalloid, input level; after adjustment for specified covariates, the hazard ratio was 1.07 (95% confidence interval 1.02 to 1.13).

CONCLUSIONS

In ventilated, very low birthweight infants, fluid restriction in the perinatal period neither reduces CLD nor increases other adverse outcomes. Colloid infusion, however, is associated with increased duration of oxygen dependency.

Randomised controlled trial of postnatal sodium supplementation on oxygen dependency and body weight in 25-30 week gestational age infants

AIM

To compare the effects of early against delayed sodium supplementation on oxygen dependency and body weight, in preterm infants of 25-30 weeks of gestational age.

METHODS

Infants were stratified by gender and gestation and randomly assigned to receive a sodium intake of 4 mmol/kg/day starting on either the second day after birth or when weight loss of 6% of birthweight was achieved. Daily sodium intake, serum sodium concentration, total fluid intake, energy intake, clinical risk index for babies (CRIB) score and duration of ventilatory support and additional oxygen therapy were recorded. Infants were weighed daily. Weights at 36 weeks and six months of postmenstrual age were also recorded.

RESULTS

Twenty four infants received early, and 22 delayed, sodium supplementation. There were no significant differences in total fluid and energy intake between the two groups. There was a significant difference in oxygen requirement at the end of the first week, with 9% of the early group in air in contrast to 35% of the delayed group (difference 26%, 95% confidence interval 2, 50). At 28 days after birth the proportions were 18% of the early group and 40% of the delayed group (difference 22%, 95% CI -5, 49). Proportional hazards modelling showed early sodium supplementation and lower birthweight to be significantly associated with increased risk of continuing oxygen requirement. The delayed sodium group had a greater maximum weight loss (delayed 16.1%; early 11.4%, p=0.02), but there were no significant differences in time to maximum weight loss, time to regain birthweight, and weight at 36 weeks and 6 months of postmenstrual age.

CONCLUSION

In infants below 30 weeks of gestation, delaying sodium supplementation until at least 6% of birthweight is lost has a beneficial effect on the risk of continuing oxygen requirement and does not compromise growth.

Intrauterine growth restriction is associated with persistent juxtamedullary expression of renin in the fetal kidney

BACKGROUND

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) has been linked to impaired renal function and hypertension, suggesting that an adverse prenatal environment could alter kidney development and renin production.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization were employed to localize renin-containing cells (RCCs) in the deep, middle, and superficial zones of autopsy kidney sections, in parallel with histologic maturation, from unexplained stillborn fetuses of normal weight (N = 26) and stillborn fetuses with IUGR (N = 17).

RESULTS

In the control group, the number of RCC per 100 glomeruli in the deep zone decreased with advancing gestation from 40 at 20 weeks gestation to five at term (P < 0.001), whereas the opposite change was found in the superficial zone (increase from 5 per 100 to 55 per 100; P < 0.001). In the IUGR group, the density of RCCs in both the superficial and deep zones was similar to the control group at 20 weeks, and no shift in renin gene expression was observed as gestation advanced. Histologic maturation was unaltered.

CONCLUSIONS

Renin gene expression persists and predominates in the deep renal cortex of the stillborn IUGR fetus, and could contribute to the pathogenesis of neonatal oliguria and/or hypertension during postnatal life.

Influence of respiratory distress syndrome on body composition after preterm birth

AIM

To observe changes in body composition during the first week after birth, in preterm neonates with and without respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), so as to be able to provide optimal fluid and energy intake.

METHODS

Twenty four babies with RDS and 19 healthy preterm babies, with gestational ages ranging from 26-36 weeks, were studied daily for the first week after birth. Total body water (TBW) was measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis. The babies were weighed daily and a record made of fluid and energy intake. Body solids were calculated as the difference between body weight and TBW.

RESULTS

There was a highly significant reduction in body weight by the end of the week, with the RDS babies losing more than the healthy babies (RDS 7.6%; non-RDS 3.7%). There was no significant difference in the amount of TBW at birth in the babies with and without RDS (RDS 85.1%; non-RDS 85.5%) and both groups lost the same amount of body water (RDS 10.9%; non-RDS 9.9%) by the end of the first week. The amount of total body water lost was unrelated to the volume of fluid administered. There was a loss of body solids during the first day in the RDS group, but, overall, there was a highly significant increase in both groups between birth and day 7, which was greater in the healthy babies (RDS 13.0%; non-RDS 42.7%).

CONCLUSIONS

Loss of body water after birth occurs to the same extent in healthy preterm neonates and in babies with RDS and is unrelated to the volume of fluid administered. Given adequate nutritional support, an increase in body solids can accompany early postnatal weight loss and begins almost immediately after birth, in both healthy preterm babies and babies with RDS.