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Exercise Effects on the Biomechanical Properties of the Achilles Tendon—A Narrative Review. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11020172. [PMID: 35205039 PMCID: PMC8869522 DOI: 10.3390/biology11020172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary The Achilles tendon influences the running economy because of its ability to store and release strain energy, and it remains one of the most vulnerable tendons among athletes and recreational runners. Exercised-related mechanical loading appears to induce changes in the Achilles tendon morphology and mechanical material properties. Both acute and relatively long-term exercise induces tendon adaptation, although biomechanical changes, e.g., cross-sectional area, plantarflexion moment, Young’s modulus, and stiffness, in response to exercise duration, type, and loading-regimes differ widely. Furthermore, a strong Achilles tendon can be developed by chronic exposure to habitual mechanical loading from daily exercise, which is associated with greater energy storage, release and overall health. Abstract The morphological and mechanical properties (e.g., stiffness, stress, and force) of the Achilles tendon (AT) are generally associated with its tendinosis and ruptures, particularly amongst runners. Interest in potential approaches to reduce or prevent the risk of AT injuries has grown exponentially as tendon mechanics have been efficiently improving. The following review aims to discuss the effect of different types of exercise on the AT properties. In this review article, we review literature showing the possibility to influence the mechanical properties of the AT from the perspective of acute exercise and long-term training interventions, and we discuss the reasons for inconsistent results. Finally, we review the role of the habitual state in the AT properties. The findings of the included studies suggest that physical exercise could efficiently improve the AT mechanical properties. In particular, relatively long-term and low-intensity eccentric training may be a useful adjunct to enhance the mechanical loading of the AT.
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Yu Y, Jerrett M, Paul KC, Su J, Shih IF, Wu J, Lee E, Inoue K, Haan M, Ritz B. Ozone Exposure, Outdoor Physical Activity, and Incident Type 2 Diabetes in the SALSA Cohort of Older Mexican Americans. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2021; 129:97004. [PMID: 34494856 PMCID: PMC8425281 DOI: 10.1289/ehp8620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Type 2 diabetes is a leading contributor to the global burden of morbidity and mortality. Ozone (O3) exposure has previously been linked to diabetes. OBJECTIVE We studied the impact of O3 exposure on incident diabetes risk in elderly Mexican Americans and investigated whether outdoor physical activity modifies the association. METHODS We selected 1,090 Mexican American participants from the Sacramento Area Latino Study on Aging conducted from 1998 to 2007. Ambient O3 exposure levels were modeled with a land-use regression built with saturation monitoring data collected at 49 sites across the Sacramento metropolitan area. Using Cox proportional hazard models, we estimated the risk of developing incident diabetes based on average O3 exposure modeled for 5-y prior to incident diabetes diagnosis or last follow-up. Further, we estimated outdoor leisure-time physical activity at baseline and investigated whether higher vs. lower levels modified the association between O3 exposure and diabetes. RESULTS In total, 186 incident diabetes cases were identified during 10-y follow-up. Higher levels of physical activity were negatively associated with incident diabetes [hazard ratio (HR)=0.64 (95% CI: 0.43, 0.95)]. The estimated HRs for incident diabetes was 1.13 (95% CI: 1.00, 1.28) per 10-ppb increment of 5-y average O3 exposure; also, this association was stronger among those physically active outdoors [HR=1.52 (95% CI: 1.21, 1.90)], and close to null for those reporting lower levels of outdoor activity [HR=1.04 (95% CI: 0.90, 1.20), pinteraction=0.01]. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that ambient O3 exposure contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes, particularly among those with higher levels of leisure-time outdoor physical activity. Policies and strategies are needed to reduce O3 exposure to guarantee that the health benefits of physical activity are not diminished by higher levels of O3 pollution in susceptible populations such as older Hispanics. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP8620.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Yu
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Michael Jerrett
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Kimberly C. Paul
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Jason Su
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, University of California, Berkley School of Public Health, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - I-Fan Shih
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Jun Wu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Program in Public Health, Susan and Henry Samueli College of Health Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Eunice Lee
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Kosuke Inoue
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Mary Haan
- Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Beate Ritz
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Neurology, UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA
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