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Torre MM, Carrubba C, Langeard A, Hugues N, Laurin J, Temprado JJ. Is an 8-Week Regimen of Nordic Walking Training Sufficient to Benefit Cognitive Performance in Healthy Older Adults? A Pilot Study. J Clin Med 2024; 13:1235. [PMID: 38592068 PMCID: PMC10932334 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13051235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Nordic walking requires the association of walking and coordination of limbs while orienteering in a natural environment. It has been shown to improve functional capacities more than normal walking. However, its cognitive benefits are less clear. The main hypothesis was that this training improves visuospatial capacities and inhibition functions. A total of 14 healthy older adults were included. The training was performed in three sessions of 75 min a week for 8 weeks. Pre-, intermediate, and post-tests were carried out. Cognitive functions including global cognition (MoCA), executive functions (Color-Word Stroop test), speed of information processing, switching capacities (Trail Making Test A and B), and visuospatial capacities (Rey Complex Figure Copy Task) were assessed. Motor functions including balance control (Unipedal Balance Test), functional mobility (Timed Up and Go), hamstring flexibility (Chair Sit and Reach test), and motor coordination (Four-Square Stepping Test) were evaluated. Physical function, including lower limb strength (Timed Sit-To-Stand) and cardiovascular capacities (Incremental Shuttle Walking Test), was measured. Cardiovascular capacity, strength of lower limbs, and motor coordination were positively affected by training. With respect to cognition, training improved visuospatial capacities, while switching capacities, information processing speed, and executive functions did not improve. A possible explanation is that they needed a longer program duration to show benefits. However, analyses of responders suggested that NW positively affected cognitive functioning in a subset of participants. Eight weeks of NW training produced physical, motor, and cognitive improvements. A longer training duration could be necessary to extend the benefits to executive functions in all participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Maria Torre
- Institut des Sciences du Mouvement (ISM), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France; (C.C.); (N.H.)
| | - Clelia Carrubba
- Institut des Sciences du Mouvement (ISM), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France; (C.C.); (N.H.)
| | - Antoine Langeard
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Mobilités: Vieillissement, Pathologie, Santé (COMETE), Université Caen Normandie, CHU, 14032 Caen, France;
| | - Nicolas Hugues
- Institut des Sciences du Mouvement (ISM), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France; (C.C.); (N.H.)
- Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée (INMED), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Aix-Marseille Université, 13273 Marseille, France;
| | - Jérôme Laurin
- Institut de Neurobiologie de la Méditerranée (INMED), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Aix-Marseille Université, 13273 Marseille, France;
| | - Jean-Jacques Temprado
- Institut des Sciences du Mouvement (ISM), Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, 13288 Marseille, France; (C.C.); (N.H.)
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Peres Costa I, Silva SM, Alves da Silva G, Dal Corso S, Stirbulov R, Ferrari Correa JC, Malosá Sampaio LM. Shuttle walk test categorization according to the qualifiers of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: proposal for use in patients with difficult-to-treat asthma, a cross-sectional study. Physiother Theory Pract 2022:1-8. [PMID: 35414340 DOI: 10.1080/09593985.2022.2063212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
AIM To classify functional capacity of people with difficult-to-treat asthma based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). METHODS Fifty-seven patients underwent the Incremental Shuttle Walk Test (ISWT) to assess functional capacity, in order to categorize them functionally we used the ICF qualifiers. To qualify ISWT results the individual's impairment (i.e. percentage of distance walked in relation to the percentage of predicted) was analyzed. Additionally, body mass index (BMI); physical activity level (IPAQ); and pulmonary function were evaluated. In order to analyze the difference between functional capacity levels, two groups were compared (i.e. mild/moderate vs. severe impairment); therefore, the participants were matched according to age and BMI and the unpaired Student t test was used. RESULTS Among the fifty-seven included individuals, only one (1.8%) presented mild functional capacity limitation, 12 (21.1%) moderate limitation and 44 (77.2%) severe limitation. There was a significant difference between the ISWT distance between groups (F = 0.217, p < .001). The other variables did not present differences between the mild/moderate and severe groups. CONCLUSION The ICF qualifiers were able to categorize the ISWT and classified the functional capacity limitation as mild, moderate and severe. Therefore, it has proved to be a useful clinical tool for evaluation, follow-up and clinical decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Peres Costa
- in Rehabilitation Sciences, Nove de Julho UniversityMaster's and Doctoral Programs , São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Soraia Micaela Silva
- in Rehabilitation Sciences, Nove de Julho UniversityMaster's and Doctoral Programs , São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Graziella Alves da Silva
- in Rehabilitation Sciences, Nove de Julho UniversityMaster's and Doctoral Programs , São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Simone Dal Corso
- in Rehabilitation Sciences, Nove de Julho UniversityMaster's and Doctoral Programs , São Paulo, Brazil
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Comparison of Three Physical-Cognitive Training Programs in Healthy Older Adults: A Study Protocol for a Monocentric Randomized Trial. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11010066. [PMID: 33561081 PMCID: PMC7825494 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11010066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Combining aerobic, coordination and cognitive training allows for more improved physical and cognitive performance than when performed separately. A Nordic walking (NW) and two cognitive-motor circuit training programs (CT-c and CT-fit) are compared. CT-c and CT-fit stimulate cognition differently: CT-c, is through conventional complex coordination training performed in single and dual-task conditions; CT-fit, incorporates it into complex goal-directed actions, implemented by fitness gaming technology (2) The aim is to determine whether CT-fit brings additional benefits to cognition compared to more traditional training. (3) Forty-five healthy independent living community dwellers participants (65–80 years) will be included after a general medical examination. The main exclusion criteria are signs of cognitive impairments (Mini–Mental State Examination < 26/30) and physical impairments. Pre and post-tests will be performed to assess: cognitive functions (Montreal Cognitive Assessment; Trail Making Test; Stroop task, working memory test, Rey Complex Figure copy task, Oral Trail Making Test, and dual-task); motor fitness (Bipedal and unipedal balance test, gait assessments, Time Up and Go, chair sit and reach test and four-square stepping test); and physical fitness (10 m incremental shuttle walking test, maximal handgrip force, Timed-Stands test). (4) Incorporating cognitive demands into complex, goal-directed actions using fitness gaming technology should be the best solution to optimize training benefits.
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Lewthwaite H, Koch EM, Ekström M, Hamilton A, Bourbeau J, Maltais F, Borel B, Jensen D. Predicting the rate of oxygen consumption during the 3-minute constant-rate stair stepping and shuttle tests in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Thorac Dis 2020; 12:2489-2498. [PMID: 32642156 PMCID: PMC7330369 DOI: 10.21037/jtd.2020.03.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background The 3-minute constant-rate stair stepping (3-min CRSST) and constant-speed shuttle tests (3-min CSST) were developed to assess breathlessness in response to a standardized exercise stimulus. Estimating the rate of oxygen consumption (V’O2) during these tests would assist clinicians to relate the stepping/shuttle speeds that elicit breathlessness to daily physical activities with a similar metabolic demand. This study: (I) developed equations to estimate the V’O2 of these tests in people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD); and (II) compared the newly developed and American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) metabolic equations for estimating the V’O2 of these tests. Methods This study was a retrospective analysis of people with COPD who completed a 3-min CRSST (n=98) or 3-min CSST (n=69). Multivariate linear regression estimated predictors (alpha <0.05) of V’O2 to construct COPD-specific metabolic equations. The mean squared error (MSE) of the COPD-specific and ACSM equations was calculated and compared. Bland-Altman analyses evaluated level of agreement between measured and predicted V’O2 using each equation; limits of agreement (LoA) and patterns of bias were compared. Results Stepping rate/shuttle speed and body mass were identified as significant predictors of V’O2. The MSE of the COPD-specific equations was 0.05 L·min−1 for both tests. Mean difference between measured and predicted V’O2 was 0.00 L·min−1 (95% LoA −0.46, 0.46) and 0.00 L·min−1 (95% LoA −0.44, 0.44) for the 3-min CRSST and 3-min CSST, respectively. For the ACSM metabolic equations, the MSE was 0.10 L·min−1 and 0.18 L·min−1 for the 3-min CRSST and 3-min CSST, respectively. The ACSM metabolic equations underestimated V’O2 of the 3-min CRSST by −0.18 L·min−1 (95% LoA −0.68, 0.32), and overestimated V’O2 of the 3-min CSST by 0.35 L·min−1 (95% LoA −0.14, 0.84). Conclusions This study presents metabolic equations to predict V’O2 of the 3-min CRSST and 3-min CSST for people with COPD that are more accurate than the ACSM metabolic equations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley Lewthwaite
- Clinical Exercise and Respiratory Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, Faculty of Education, McGill University, Montréal, Canada.,Innovation, Implementation and Clinical Translation in Health (IIMPACT), School of Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Emily M Koch
- Clinical Exercise and Respiratory Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, Faculty of Education, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
| | - Magnus Ekström
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Division of Respiratory Medicine and Allergology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Alan Hamilton
- Boehringer Ingelheim Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jean Bourbeau
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Translational Research in Respiratory Diseases Program, Montréal, Canada.,Respiratory Epidemiology and Clinical Research Unit, Montreal Chest Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, Canada.,Division of Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
| | - François Maltais
- Centre de recherche, Institut universitaire de cardiologie et de pneumologie de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada
| | - Benoit Borel
- Laboratoire Handicap, Activité, Vieillissement, Autonomie, Environnement, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université de Limoges, Limoges, France
| | - Dennis Jensen
- Clinical Exercise and Respiratory Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, Faculty of Education, McGill University, Montréal, Canada.,Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Translational Research in Respiratory Diseases Program, Montréal, Canada.,Respiratory Epidemiology and Clinical Research Unit, Montreal Chest Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, Canada.,Division of Respiratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, Canada.,Research Centre for Physical Activity and Health, Faculty of Education, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
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Woolf-May K, Meadows S, Ferrett D, Kearney E. Metabolic equivalents fail to indicate metabolic load in post-myocardial infarction patients during the modified Bruce treadmill walking test. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2017; 2:e000173. [PMID: 28879030 PMCID: PMC5569267 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2016-000173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To investigate the suitability of metabolic equivalents (METs) for determining exercise intensity in phase-IV post-myocardial infarction (MI) men during the modified Bruce treadmill walking test (MBWT). METHODS Twenty phase-IV post-MI men (mean±SD, aged 64.4±5.8 years) and 20 healthy non-cardiac male controls (59.8±7.6 years) participated. Participants performed a MBWT. Throughout the participants' heart rate (HR), heart rhythm, expired air parameters and ratings of perceived exertion (RPEs) were measured. MET values were compared between groups and those currently ascribed to each stage of the MBWT. RESULTS General linear model analysis found no significant differences between groups during the MBWT for VO2, VCO2, HR, METs or RPEs (Borg 6-20 scale). Ascribed METs did not differ from mean METs of post-MIs or controls other than at stage 5 where post-MI METs were significantly lower. Irrespective, the post-MI group worked at a higher percentage of their anaerobic threshold (AT) (respiratory exchange ratio, RER=1.0) (F(2,5)=7.22, p<0.008), higher RER (F(2,5)=11.25, p<0.001) with increased breathing frequency (F(2,5)=7.22, p<0.001). Regression analysis revealed AT to be VO2 25.6 (mL/kg/min) for post-MI versus VO2 31.1 (mL/kg/min) for controls. Gross energy expenditure (kcal/min) was greater for the post-MI group compared with controls (F(2,5)=11.22, p<0.001). Throughout the MBWT, post-MI group worked at a higher %AT/MET than controls (F(2,196)=211.76, p<0.01). Body composition did not strongly influence %AT/MET, parameters of VO2, METs or RPE. CONCLUSION During the MBWT, post-MI men worked more anaerobically per MET (%AT/MET) than controls. Therefore, current METs based on non-cardiac individuals appear unsuitable in determining the full metabolic load of the exercise intensity for cardiac patients during the MBWT.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Woolf-May
- Human and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, UK
| | - S Meadows
- School of Sport & Exercise Sciences, University of Kent at Medway, Canterbury, UK
| | - D Ferrett
- Human and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, UK
| | - E Kearney
- East Kent Hospital University NHS Foundation Trust, Canterbury, UK
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Woolf-May K, Meadows S. Appropriateness of the metabolic equivalent (MET) as an estimate of exercise intensity for post-myocardial infarction patients. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2017; 2:e000172. [PMID: 28890802 PMCID: PMC5566263 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2016-000172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS To explore: (1) whether during exercise metabolic equivalents (METs) appropriately indicate the intensity and/or metabolic cost for post-myocardial infarction (MI) males and (2) whether post-exercise VO2 parameters provide insight into the intensity and/or metabolic cost of the prior exercise. METHODS 15 male phase-IV post-MIs (64.4±6.5 years) and 16 apparently healthy males (63.0±6.4 years) participated. Participants performed a graded cycle ergometer test (CET) of 50, 75 and 100 W, followed by 10 min active recovery (at 50 W) and 22 min seated recovery. Participants' heart rate (HR, bpm), expired air parameters and ratings of perceived exertion (exercise only) were measured. RESULTS General linear model analysis showed throughout significantly lower HR values in post-MI participants that were related to β-blocker medication (F(2,5)=18.47, p<0.01), with significantly higher VCO2/VO2 (F(2,5)=11.25, p<0.001) and gross kcals/LO2/min (F(2,5)=11.25, p<0.001). Analysis comparing lines of regression showed, during the CET: post-MI participants worked at higher percentage of their anaerobic threshold (%AT)/MET than controls (F(2,90)=18.98, p<0.001), as well as during active recovery (100-50 W) (F(2,56)=20.81, p<0.001); during seated recovery: GLM analysis showed significantly higher values of VCO2/VO2 for post-MI participants compared with controls (F(2,3)=21.48, p=0.001) as well as gross kcals/LO2/min (F(2,3)=21.48, p=0.001). CONCLUSION Since METs take no consideration of any anaerobic component, they failed to reflect the significantly greater anaerobic contribution during exercise per MET for phase-IV post-MI patients. Given the anaerobic component will be greater for those with more severe forms of cardiac disease, current METs should be used with caution when determining exercise intensity in any patient with cardiac disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Woolf-May
- Human and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, Kent, UK
| | - Steve Meadows
- School of Sport & Exercise Sciences, University of Kent, Chatham Maritime, Kent, UK
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Buckley JP, Cardoso FMF, Birkett ST, Sandercock GRH. Oxygen Costs of the Incremental Shuttle Walk Test in Cardiac Rehabilitation Participants: An Historical and Contemporary Analysis. Sports Med 2016; 46:1953-1962. [DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0521-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Vijayaraghava A, Doreswamy V, Narasipur OS, Kunnavil R, Srinivasamurthy N. Effect of Yoga Practice on Levels of Inflammatory Markers After Moderate and Strenuous Exercise. J Clin Diagn Res 2015; 9:CC08-12. [PMID: 26266115 DOI: 10.7860/jcdr/2015/12851.6021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES To evaluate the effect of yoga practice and exercise challenge on Tumour Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-α), Interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels and lipid profile. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two hundred and eighteen subjects participated in the study. One hundred and nine volunteers (51 males and 58 females) in the age group of 20 to 60 years, who practiced yoga regularly for over five years for a period of one hour daily, performed a bout of moderate exercise and a bout of strenuous exercise as per Standardized Shuttle Walk test protocol. Anthropometrically matched, age matched and gender matched subjects, who did not practice yoga (non-yoga group) were chosen as controls (non-yoga, n=109). The non-yoga group also performed similar exercises. The blood samples of both the groups were collected before and after the exercises. TNF-α and IL-6 was analysed before and after the exercise by Sandwich ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay). RESULTS Resting plasma TNF-α concentration was significantly higher in non-yoga group when compared to yoga group (p<0.05). There was an increase in TNF-α levels in both the groups in response to strenuous exercise. There was no gender difference in TNF-α and IL-6 levels before and after exercise in yoga and non-yoga groups. CONCLUSION Regular practice of yoga lowers basal TNF-α and IL-6 levels. It also reduces the extent of increase of TNF-α and IL-6 to a physical challenge of moderate exercise and strenuous exercise. There is no significant gender difference in the TNF-α and IL-6 levels. Regular practice of yoga can protect the individual against inflammatory diseases by favourably altering pro-inflammatory cytokine levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambarish Vijayaraghava
- Associate Professor, Department of Physiology, M. S. Ramaiah Medical College , Bangalore, India
| | - Venkatesh Doreswamy
- Professor, Department of Physiology, M. S. Ramaiah Medical College , Bangalore, India
| | - Omkar Subbaramajois Narasipur
- Chief Research Scientist, Yoga and Biomech Lab, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science , Bangalore, India
| | - Radhika Kunnavil
- Lecturer Cum Statistician, Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, M. S. Ramaiah Medical College , Bangalore, India
| | - Nandagudi Srinivasamurthy
- Professor Cum Statistician and Research Co-Ordinator, Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, M. S. Ramaiah Medical College , Bangalore, India
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Ventilatory and Metabolic Response in the Incremental Shuttle and 6-Min Walking Tests Measured by Telemetry in Obese Patients Prior to Bariatric Surgery. Obes Surg 2015; 25:1658-65. [DOI: 10.1007/s11695-014-1548-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Almodhy M, Beneke R, Cardoso F, Taylor MJD, Sandercock GRH. Pilot investigation of the oxygen demands and metabolic cost of incremental shuttle walking and treadmill walking in patients with cardiovascular disease. BMJ Open 2014; 4:e005216. [PMID: 25227624 PMCID: PMC4166138 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine if the metabolic cost of the incremental shuttle-walking test protocol is the same as treadmill walking or predicted values of walking-speed equations. SETTING Primary care (community-based cardiac rehabilitation). PARTICIPANTS Eight Caucasian cardiac rehabilitation patients (7 males) with a mean age of 67±5.2 years. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES Oxygen consumption, metabolic power and energy cost of walking during treadmill and shuttle walking performed in a balanced order with 1 week between trials. RESULTS Average overall energy cost per metre was higher during treadmill walking (3.22±0.55 J kg/m) than during shuttle walking (3.00±0.41 J kg/m). There were significant post hoc effects at 0.67 m/s (p<0.004) and 0.84 m/s (p<0.001), where the energy cost of treadmill walking was significantly higher than that of shuttle walking. This pattern was reversed at walking speeds 1.52 m/s (p<0.042) and 1.69 m/s (p<0.007) where shuttle walking had a greater energy cost per metre than treadmill walking. At all walking speeds, the energy cost of shuttle walking was higher than that predicted using the American College of Sports Medicine walking equations. CONCLUSIONS The energetic demands of shuttle walking were fundamentally different from those of treadmill walking and should not be directly compared. We warn against estimating the metabolic cost of the incremental shuttle-walking test using the current walking-speed equations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Almodhy
- Centre for Sports & Exercise Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
| | - R Beneke
- Institut für Sportwissenschaft und Motologie Medezin, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - F Cardoso
- Centre for Sports & Exercise Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
| | - M J D Taylor
- Centre for Sports & Exercise Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
| | - G R H Sandercock
- Centre for Sports & Exercise Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
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