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Ranjbar M, Tegegn Woldemariam Y. Non-falciparum malaria infections in Uganda, does it matter? A review of the published literature. Malar J 2024; 23:207. [PMID: 38997728 PMCID: PMC11242000 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-024-05023-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasmodium falciparum is the dominant malaria species in the sub-Saharan Africa and the main cause of severe disease and death. Notwithstanding, severe malaria and death due to non-falciparum infections have been reported, but at much lower rates than P. falciparum infections. Following increasing use of molecular detection techniques in epidemiological studies, a higher prevalence of non-falciparum species has been reported in the region than previously thought. This article reviews the literature on the prevalence of non-falciparum malaria species in Uganda and the clinical figures of their severe diseases. It aims to elucidate the extent to which mono non-falciparum malaria infections in a highly malaria-endemic country contribute to malaria mortality and outline its policy implications on malaria case management. METHODS The available English-language published peer-reviewed literature up to March 2024 was sought via PubMed and Google Scholar. The keywords used were severe malaria, AND P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. vivax, P. ovale spp., mixed infections AND Uganda. The review encompassed 53 articles. Articles using molecular diagnosis methods were accounted for analysis. RESULTS The literature reported a substantial prevalence of non-falciparum infections in Uganda. Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale spp. were the second and third most prevalent reported malaria species respectively after P. falciparum as dominant species. Non-falciparum malaria infections often occur as mixed infections rather than mono-infections. Besides, molecular diagnostics revealed that 21% of initially reported mono-infections of P. falciparum were, in fact, mixed infections. No article was found on the prevalence of severe malaria or case fatality rate due to mixed or non-falciparum infections. CONCLUSION A critical knowledge gap exists regarding the impact of mixed and non-falciparum species on severe malaria and death in Uganda. Robust evidence on prevalence, recurrent parasitaemia, and severe clinical manifestations of mixed and non-falciparum malaria infections is crucial for evidence-based and effective policymaking regarding malaria case management.
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Baluku JB, Namanda B, Namiiro S, Rwabwera DK, Mwesigwa G, Namaara C, Twinomugisha B, Nyirazihawe I, Nuwagira E, Kansiime G, Kizito E, Nabukenya-Mudiope MG, Sekadde MP, Bongomin F, Senfuka J, Olum R, Byaruhanga A, Munabi I, Kiguli S. Death after cure: Mortality among pulmonary tuberculosis survivors in rural Uganda. Int J Infect Dis 2024; 144:107069. [PMID: 38649006 PMCID: PMC11182684 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2024.107069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the incidence of mortality and its predictors among pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) survivors treated at a rural Ugandan tertiary hospital. METHODS We conducted a retrospective chart review of data between 2013 and 2023. We included all people that met the World Health Organisation's definition of tuberculosis cure and traced them or their next of kin to determine vital status (alive/deceased). We estimated the cumulative incidence of mortality per 1000 population, crude all-cause mortality rate per 1000 person-years, and median years of potential life lost for deceased individuals. Using Cox proportional hazard models, we investigated predictors of mortality. RESULTS Of 334 PTB survivors enrolled, 38 (11.4%) had died. The cumulative incidence of all-cause mortality was 113.7 per 1000 population, and the crude all-cause mortality rate was 28.5 per 1000 person-years. The median years of potential life lost for deceased individuals was 23.8 years (IQR: 9.6-32.8). Hospitalization (adjusted hazard ratio (aHR): 4.3, 95% CI: 1.1-16.6) and unemployment (aHR: 7.04, 95% CI: 1.5-31.6) at TB treatment initiation predicted mortality. CONCLUSION PTB survivors experience post high mortality rates after TB cure. Survivors who were hospitalized and unemployed at treatment initiation were more likely to die after cure. Social protection measures and long-term follow-up of previously hospitalized patients could improve the long-term survival of TB survivors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Baruch Baluku
- Tuberculosis Research Group, Makerere University Lung Institute, Kampala, Uganda; Division of Pulmonology, Kiruddu National Referral Hospital, Kampala, Uganda; Department of Internal Medicine, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda.
| | - Brenda Namanda
- Division of Pulmonology, Kiruddu National Referral Hospital, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sharon Namiiro
- Tuberculosis Research Group, Makerere University Lung Institute, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | - Gloria Mwesigwa
- Department of Medicine, Masaka Regional Referral Hospital, Masaka, Uganda
| | - Catherine Namaara
- Department of Medicine, Masaka Regional Referral Hospital, Masaka, Uganda
| | | | | | - Edwin Nuwagira
- Department of Internal Medicine, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Grace Kansiime
- Department of Internal Medicine, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
| | - Enock Kizito
- LPHS TB Activity, Infectious Disease Institute, Kampala, Uganda
| | | | | | - Felix Bongomin
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Joshua Senfuka
- Monitoring and Evaluation Unit, Uganda Protestant Medical Bureau, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Ronald Olum
- School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Aggrey Byaruhanga
- Uganda Public Health Fellowship Program, Ministry of Health, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Ian Munabi
- School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sarah Kiguli
- School of Medicine, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
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Fiseha T, Ekong NE, Osborne NJ. Chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology in Africa: A review of the literature. Nephrology (Carlton) 2024; 29:177-187. [PMID: 38122827 DOI: 10.1111/nep.14264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
During the last two decades, an epidemic of a severe form of chronic kidney disease (CKD) unrelated to traditional risk factors (diabetes and hypertension) has been recognized in low- to middle-income countries. CKD of unknown aetiology (CKDu) mainly affects young working-age adults, and has become as an important and devastating public health issue. CKDu is a multifactorial disease with associated genetic and environmental risk factors. This review summarizes the current epidemiological evidence on the burden of CKDu and its probable environmental risk factors contributing to CKD in Africa. PubMed/Medline and the African Journals Online databases were searched to identify relevant population-based studies published in the last two decades. In the general population, the burden of CKD attributable to CKDu varied from 19.4% to 79%. Epidemiologic studies have established that environmental factors, including genetics, infectious agents, rural residence, low socioeconomic status, malnutrition, agricultural practise and exposure to agrochemicals, heavy metals, use of traditional herbs, and contaminated water sources or food contribute to the burden of CKD in the region. There is a great need for epidemiological studies exploring the true burden of CKDu and unique geographical distribution, and the role of environmental factors in the development of CKD/CKDu.
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Affiliation(s)
- Temesgen Fiseha
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia
| | | | - Nicholas J Osborne
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Population Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- European Centre for Environment and Human Health (ECEHH), University of Exeter Medical School, Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro, Cornwall, UK
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Fabian J, Kalyesubula R, Mkandawire J, Hansen CH, Nitsch D, Musenge E, Nakanga WP, Prynn JE, Dreyer G, Snyman T, Ssebunnya B, Ramsay M, Smeeth L, Tollman S, Naicker S, Crampin A, Newton R, George JA, Tomlinson L. Measurement of kidney function in Malawi, South Africa, and Uganda: a multicentre cohort study. Lancet Glob Health 2022; 10:e1159-e1169. [PMID: 35839814 DOI: 10.1016/s2214-109x(22)00239-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The burden of kidney disease in many African countries is unknown. Equations used to estimate kidney function from serum creatinine have limited regional validation. We sought to determine the most accurate way to measure kidney function and thus estimate the prevalence of impaired kidney function in African populations. METHODS We measured serum creatinine, cystatin C, and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) using the slope-intercept method for iohexol plasma clearance (mGFR) in population cohorts from Malawi, Uganda, and South Africa. We compared performance of creatinine and cystatin C-based estimating equations to mGFR, modelled and validated a new creatinine-based equation, and developed a multiple imputation model trained on the mGFR sample using age, sex, and creatinine as the variables to predict the population prevalence of impaired kidney function in west, east, and southern Africa. FINDINGS Of 3025 people who underwent measured GFR testing (Malawi n=1020, South Africa n=986, and Uganda n=1019), we analysed data for 2578 participants who had complete data and adequate quality measurements. Among 2578 included participants, creatinine-based equations overestimated kidney function compared with mGFR, worsened by use of ethnicity coefficients. The greatest bias occurred at low kidney function, such that the proportion with GFR of less than 60 mL/min per 1·73 m2 either directly measured or estimated by cystatin C was more than double that estimated from creatinine. A new creatinine-based equation did not outperform existing equations, and no equation, including the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) 2021 race-neutral equation, estimated GFR within plus or minus 30% of mGFR for 75% or more of the participants. Using a model to impute kidney function based on mGFR, the estimated prevalence of impaired kidney function was more than two-times higher than creatinine-based estimates in populations across six countries in Africa. INTERPRETATION Estimating GFR using serum creatinine substantially underestimates the individual and population-level burden of impaired kidney function in Africa with implications for understanding disease progression and complications, clinical care, and service provision. Scalable and affordable ways to accurately identify impaired kidney function in Africa are urgently needed. FUNDING The GSK Africa Non-Communicable Disease Open Lab. TRANSLATIONS For the Luganda, Chichewa and Xitsonga translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.
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Affiliation(s)
- June Fabian
- Medical Research Council/Wits University Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Wits Donald Gordon Medical Centre, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Robert Kalyesubula
- MRC/UVRI & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Joseph Mkandawire
- Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK; Department of Surgery, Pan-African Academy of Christian Surgeons, Malamulo, Thyolo, Malawi; Malawi Epidemiology and Intervention Research Unit, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Christian Holm Hansen
- MRC International Statistics and Epidemiology Group, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Dorothea Nitsch
- Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Eustasius Musenge
- Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Wisdom P Nakanga
- MRC/UVRI & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda; Malawi Epidemiology and Intervention Research Unit, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Josephine E Prynn
- Malawi Epidemiology and Intervention Research Unit, Lilongwe, Malawi; Institute of Cardiovascular Science, University College London, London, UK
| | - Gavin Dreyer
- Department of Nephrology, Barts Health National Health Service Trust, London, UK
| | - Tracy Snyman
- Department of Chemical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Billy Ssebunnya
- MRC/UVRI & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda
| | - Michele Ramsay
- Sydney Brenner Institute for Molecular Bioscience, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; Division of Human Genetics, National Health Laboratory Service and School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Liam Smeeth
- Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Stephen Tollman
- Medical Research Council/Wits University Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; International Network for the Demographic Evaluation of Populations and their Health Network, Accra, Ghana
| | - Saraladevi Naicker
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Amelia Crampin
- Malawi Epidemiology and Intervention Research Unit, Lilongwe, Malawi
| | - Robert Newton
- MRC/UVRI & London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Entebbe, Uganda; Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
| | - Jaya A George
- Department of Chemical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Laurie Tomlinson
- Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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