Pursuit of performance excellence: a population study of Norwegian adolescent female cross-country skiers and biathletes with disordered eating

Musculoskeletal Injuries in Cross-Country Skiing

Cross-country skiing, one of the oldest forms of skiing, is enjoyed widely as a recreational activity and as a competitive sport. It is practiced in regions with snow-covered landscapes, particularly in the Nordic countries and with increasing popularity in non-Nordic countries of Europe as well as in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, among others. Cross-country skiing is a fairly safe activity, and historically the risk of injury has been relatively low. However, advances in equipment development, together with increasing speeds, more demanding trails, and growing numbers of participants, have all contributed to a larger report of injuries, although still comparatively low versus other skiing modalities. Injuries in cross-country skiing can occur either after a single traumatic event or in the setting of chronic repetitive microtrauma (i.e., overuse injuries).

A Qualitative Exploration of Sport and Social Pressures on Elite Athletes in Relation to Disordered Eating

Introduction: Athletes are at increased risk of disordered eating compared to non-athletes. Inspired by previous investigation into quantitative work on an etiological model of disordered eating in athletes, the current study aimed to explore a problematic aspect of the model: athletes' lived experiences of social and sport pressures in relation to the onset of disordered eating and differing eating behaviors. Methods: Nine (N = 9) male and female athletes representing a range of endurance sports took part in semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis was utilized. Analysis: Analysis revealed two main themes each with two corresponding subthemes (1) Conflating physical appearance and sporting ability with the subthemes of (1a) social comparison in a sporting world and (1b) societal notions of "the athlete body" and (2) Living as an athlete with the corresponding subthemes of (2a) discipline and sacrifice and (2b) the balancing act. Discussion: It is the complex interaction between societal expectations as lived out in social messages and comparisons, and sport pressures that contributes to the development of disordered eating behaviors. These findings suggest that prevention and treatment of disordered eating in athletes can be applied from those already established in non-sporting realm.

Body Image and Disturbed Eating Attitudes and Behaviors in Sport-Involved Adolescents: The Role of Gender and Sport Characteristics

Disordered eating in adolescents who participate in sports is an issue of great concern. However, very few studies have examined the prevalence of sport-related determinants of disturbed eating attitudes and behaviours (DEABs) in sport-involved adolescents. The present study aims to assess body image and DEABs in the sample of adolescents involved in a sport of different characteristics (competitive sport, leisure sport; weight-sensitive and less-weight-sensitive sport) and to compare the results with those of the controls. A total sample of 732 adolescents (437 (59.4%) were female) participated in the study. The participants ranged in age from 16 to 19 years (mean = 17.2, SD = 0.6). Study participants completed a questionnaire assessing sports characteristics, body image, disordered eating, and health-compromising eating behaviours. Analysis of covariance was used to test the differences of major study variables between controls and weight-sensitive and less-weight-sensitive leisure and competitive sports groups. There was no significant difference observed in DEABs between the sports groups. Competitive athletes reported more satisfaction with body image than controls. The girls participating in weight-sensitive leisure sports reported higher overweight preoccupation and greater DEABs compared to those participating in less-weight-sensitive leisure sports. Boys participating in weight-sensitive leisure sports reported a greater drive for muscularity-related behaviour compared to those participating in less-weight-sensitive leisure sports. There was no observed interaction between gender and weight sensitivity in the competitive sports group. Adolescents involved in a competitive sport demonstrated greater body image satisfaction and did not seem to present a greater risk for DEABs than controls. Special prevention attempts for lowering body image concerns and DEABs should be addressed for adolescents participating in a weight-sensitive leisure sports.

Disordered eating behaviours in female physique athletes

Despite substantial growth in participation rates in physique sports, little is known about the modern day female physique athlete. The extreme physique traits of successful female physique athletes suggest this population may be particularly at risk of developing disordered eating (DE). The aim of this study was to determine if female physique athletes across the main divisions of bikini, fitness, figure and bodybuilding were at risk of DE and to explore possible associated risk factors. Furthermore, we aimed to investigate differences in incidence of DE across divisions given differences in physique requirements. Female physique athletes (n = 348) were recruited using targeted methods and completed an online survey based on validated questionnaires, including the Drive for Thinness, Body Dissatisfaction, and Bulimia subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), Pathogenic Weight Control Measures (PWCM), and the Cognitive Dietary Restraint subscale of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-CDR). Athletes scoring above the cut off values for one or more of the EDI subscales or engaged in at least one of the most concerning PWCM (binge eating, laxative use, and self-induced vomiting) were considered at risk of DE. Approximately half of the participants were identified with DE (46.6%), independent of division, with 27.3% exhibiting clinical and 19.3% having subclinical DE. Furthermore, approximately half (48.9%) of participants engaged in at least one of the most concerning PWCM within the past three months, with a smaller proportion (5.2%) engaging in all three PWCM. Weak but significant correlations were found between some EDI subscales and reason for sport participation, BMI and body composition goals. Drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction were positively associated with use of PWCM. In conclusion, a high proportion of female physique athletes were identified with DE, with a concerning number of athletes engaging in harmful PWCM.

Systematic review of risk factors for eating psychopathology in athletes: A critique of an etiological model

OBJECTIVE

The theoretical model by Petrie and Greenleaf (2007, 2012) is an admirable attempt to collate the causal factors of disordered eating in athletes. The aims of this systematic review are (a) to provide an overview of the findings from the relevant literature, (b) to assess whether the model is supported by the existing research, (c) to evaluate the different designs, methods, and measures used to test the mediators in the model, and (d) to highlight areas for improvements and future research.

METHOD

A systematic review of four major online databases identified 37 relevant papers on risk factors of disordered eating in athletes, which were reviewed and critically compared with the theoretical model.

RESULTS

There is a lack of longitudinal research with the relevant mediators in athlete populations, which makes it difficult to determine whether the potential mediators described by Petrie and Greenleaf are causal risk factors rather than simply correlates of disordered eating for athletes. Findings for all the potential mediators are inconsistent, and the range of measures used makes it problematic to draw conclusions.

CONCLUSIONS

Future research needs to use gold standard measures and longitudinal designs in order to fully test and possibly update the model.