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Wang J, Li Q, Qiu Y, Kitanovski S, Wang C, Zhang C, Li F, Li X, Zhang Z, Huang L, Zhang J, Hoffmann D, Lu M, Lu H. Cell-type-specific expression analysis of liver transcriptomics with clinical parameters to decipher the cause of intrahepatic inflammation in chronic hepatitis B. IMETA 2024; 3:e221. [PMID: 39135698 PMCID: PMC11316924 DOI: 10.1002/imt2.221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2024] [Revised: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Functional cure for chronic hepatitis B (CHB) remains challenging due to the lack of direct intervention methods for hepatic inflammation. Multi-omics research offers a promising approach to understand hepatic inflammation mechanisms in CHB. A Bayesian linear model linked gene expression with clinical parameters, and population-specific expression analysis (PSEA) refined bulk gene expression into specific cell types across different clinical phases. These models were integrated into our analysis of key factors like inflammatory cells, immune activation, T cell exhaustion, chemokines, receptors, and interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). Validation through multi-immune staining in liver specimens from CHB patients bolstered our findings. In CHB patients, increased gene expression related to immune cell activation and migration was noted. Marker genes of macrophages, T cells, immune-negative regulators, chemokines, and ISGs showed a positive correlation with serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels but not hepatitis B virus DNA levels. The PSEA model confirmed T cells as the source of exhausted regulators, while macrophages primarily contributed to chemokine expression. Upregulated ISGs (ISG20, IFI16, TAP2, GBP1, PSMB9) in the hepatitis phase were associated with T cell and macrophage infiltration and positively correlated with ALT levels. Conversely, another set of ISGs (IFI44, ISG15, IFI44L, IFI6, MX1) mainly expressed by hepatocytes and B cells showed no correlation with ALT levels. Our study presents a multi-omics analysis integrating bulk transcriptomic, single-cell sequencing data, and clinical data from CHB patients to decipher the cause of intrahepatic inflammation in CHB. The findings confirm that macrophages secrete chemokines like CCL20, recruiting exhausted T cells into liver tissue; concurrently, hepatocyte innate immunity is suppressed, hindering the antiviral effects of ISGs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Wang
- National Clinical Research Center for Infectious DiseasesThe Third People's Hospital of Shenzhen and The Second Affiliated Hospital of Southern University of Science and TechnologyShenzhenChina
- Institute of Virology, University Hospital of EssenUniversity of Duisburg‐EssenEssenGermany
- Clinical Medical Research Center, The Fifth People's Hospital of WuxiJiangnan UniversityWuxiChina
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Center for Medical Biotechnology (ZMB)University of Duisburg‐EssenEssenGermany
| | - Qian Li
- National Clinical Research Center for Infectious DiseasesThe Third People's Hospital of Shenzhen and The Second Affiliated Hospital of Southern University of Science and TechnologyShenzhenChina
- Institute of Virology, University Hospital of EssenUniversity of Duisburg‐EssenEssenGermany
| | - Yuanwang Qiu
- Clinical Medical Research Center, The Fifth People's Hospital of WuxiJiangnan UniversityWuxiChina
| | - Simo Kitanovski
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Center for Medical Biotechnology (ZMB)University of Duisburg‐EssenEssenGermany
| | - Chen Wang
- National Clinical Research Center for Infectious DiseasesThe Third People's Hospital of Shenzhen and The Second Affiliated Hospital of Southern University of Science and TechnologyShenzhenChina
| | - Chenxia Zhang
- Clinical Medical Research Center, The Fifth People's Hospital of WuxiJiangnan UniversityWuxiChina
| | - Fahong Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biosafety Emergency Response, Department of Infectious DiseasesNational Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Huashan HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Xiaoguang Li
- Clinical Medical Research Center, The Fifth People's Hospital of WuxiJiangnan UniversityWuxiChina
| | - Zhenfeng Zhang
- School of Public Health and Emergency ManagementSouthern University of Science and TechnologyShenzhenChina
| | - Lihua Huang
- Clinical Medical Research Center, The Fifth People's Hospital of WuxiJiangnan UniversityWuxiChina
| | - Jiming Zhang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Biosafety Emergency Response, Department of Infectious DiseasesNational Medical Center for Infectious Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Huashan HospitalFudan UniversityShanghaiChina
| | - Daniel Hoffmann
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Center for Medical Biotechnology (ZMB)University of Duisburg‐EssenEssenGermany
| | - Mengji Lu
- National Clinical Research Center for Infectious DiseasesThe Third People's Hospital of Shenzhen and The Second Affiliated Hospital of Southern University of Science and TechnologyShenzhenChina
- Institute of Virology, University Hospital of EssenUniversity of Duisburg‐EssenEssenGermany
- Clinical Medical Research Center, The Fifth People's Hospital of WuxiJiangnan UniversityWuxiChina
| | - Hongzhou Lu
- National Clinical Research Center for Infectious DiseasesThe Third People's Hospital of Shenzhen and The Second Affiliated Hospital of Southern University of Science and TechnologyShenzhenChina
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Tu T, Wettengel J, Xia Y, Testoni B, Littlejohn M, Le Bert N, Ebert G, Verrier ER, Tavis JE, Cohen C. Major open questions in the hepatitis B and D field - Proceedings of the inaugural International emerging hepatitis B and hepatitis D researchers workshop. Virology 2024; 595:110089. [PMID: 38640789 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2024.110089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
The early and mid-career researchers (EMCRs) of scientific communities represent the forefront of research and the future direction in which a field takes. The opinions of this key demographic are not commonly aggregated to audit fields and precisely demonstrate where challenges lie for the future. To address this, we initiated the inaugural International Emerging Researchers Workshop for the global Hepatitis B and Hepatitis D scientific community (75 individuals). The cohort was split into small discussion groups and the significant problems, challenges, and future directions were assessed. Here, we summarise the outcome of these discussions and outline the future directions suggested by the EMCR community. We show an effective approach to gauging and accumulating the ideas of EMCRs and provide a succinct summary of the significant gaps remaining in the Hepatitis B and Hepatitis D field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Tu
- Storr Liver Centre, The Westmead Institute for Medical Research, The University of Sydney at Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, Australia; Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Sydney Infectious Diseases Institute, The University of Sydney at Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, Australia.
| | - Jochen Wettengel
- Division of Pathobiology and Immunology, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, 97006, USA; Institute of Virology, Technical University of Munich /Helmholtz Munich, Munich, Germany; German Center for Infection Research, Munich Partner Site, 81675, Munich, Germany
| | - Yuchen Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Institute of Medical Virology, TaiKang Center for Life and Medical Sciences, TaiKang Medical School, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China; Hubei Jiangxia Laboratory, Wuhan, China; Pingyuan Laboratory, Henan, China
| | - Barbara Testoni
- INSERM U1052, CNRS UMR-5286, Cancer Research Center of Lyon, Lyon, France; University of Lyon, Université Claude-Bernard, Lyon, France; Hepatology Institute of Lyon, France
| | - Margaret Littlejohn
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Reference Laboratory, Royal Melbourne Hospital and Department of Infectious Disease, University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Nina Le Bert
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | - Gregor Ebert
- Institute of Virology, Technical University of Munich /Helmholtz Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Eloi R Verrier
- University of Strasbourg, Inserm, Institute for Translational Medicine and Liver Disease, UMR_S1110, Strasbourg, France
| | - John E Tavis
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine and the Saint Louis University Institute for Drug and Biotherapeutic Innovation, Saint Louis, MO, USA
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Wang L, Liao F, Yang L, Jiang L, Duan L, Wang B, Mu D, Chen J, Huang Y, Hu Q, Chen W. KLRG1-expressing CD8+ T cells are exhausted and polyfunctional in patients with chronic hepatitis B. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303945. [PMID: 38776335 PMCID: PMC11111010 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Killer cell lectin-like receptor G1 (KLRG1) has traditionally been regarded as an inhibitory receptor of T cell exhaustion in chronic infection and inflammation. However, its exact role in hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains elusive. CD8+ T cells from 190 patients with chronic hepatitis B were analyzed ex vivo for checkpoint and apoptosis markers, transcription factors, cytokines and subtypes in 190 patients with chronic hepatitis B. KLRG1+ and KLRG1- CD8+ T cells were sorted for transcriptome analysis. The impact of the KLRG1-E-cadherin pathway on the suppression of HBV replication mediated by virus-specific T cells was validated in vitro. As expected, HBV-specific CD8+ T cells expressed higher levels of KLRG1 and showed an exhausted molecular phenotype and function. However, despite being enriched for the inhibitory molecules, thymocyte selection-associated high mobility group box protein (TOX), eomesodermin (EOMES), and Helios, CD8+ T cells expressing KLRG1 produced significant levels of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-γ, perforin, and granzyme B, demonstrating not exhausted but active function. Consistent with the in vitro phenotypic assay results, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data showed that signature effector T cell and exhausted T cell genes were enriched in KLRG1+ CD8+ T cells. Furthermore, in vitro testing confirmed that KLRG1-E-cadherin binding inhibits the antiviral efficacy of HBV-specific CD8+ T cells. Based on these findings, we concluded that KLRG1+ CD8+ T cells are not only a terminally exhausted subgroup but also exhibit functional diversity, despite inhibitory signs in HBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Fangli Liao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Liping Yang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Linshan Jiang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Liang Duan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Bo Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Di Mu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Juan Chen
- The Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases Designated by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ying Huang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qin Hu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Weixian Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Hu JL, Huang AL. Classifying hepatitis B therapies with insights from covalently closed circular DNA dynamics. Virol Sin 2024; 39:9-23. [PMID: 38110037 PMCID: PMC10877440 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2023.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The achievement of a functional cure for chronic hepatitis B (CHB) remains limited to a minority of patients treated with currently approved drugs. The primary objective in developing new anti-HBV drugs is to enhance the functional cure rates for CHB. A critical prerequisite for the functional cure of CHB is a substantial reduction, or even eradication of covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA). Within this context, the changes in cccDNA levels during treatment become as a pivotal concern. We have previously analyzed the factors influencing cccDNA dynamics and introduced a preliminary classification of hepatitis B treatment strategies based on these dynamics. In this review, we employ a systems thinking perspective to elucidate the fundamental aspects of the HBV replication cycle and to rationalize the classification of treatment strategies according to their impact on the dynamic equilibrium of cccDNA. Building upon this foundation, we categorize current anti-HBV strategies into two distinct groups and advocate for their combined use to significantly reduce cccDNA levels within a well-defined timeframe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie-Li Hu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology on Infectious Diseases, Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.
| | - Ai-Long Huang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology on Infectious Diseases, Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China.
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Lang-Meli J, Neumann-Haefelin C, Thimme R. Targeting virus-specific CD8+ T cells for treatment of chronic viral hepatitis: from bench to bedside. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2024; 24:77-89. [PMID: 38290716 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2024.2313112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION More than 350 million people worldwide live with chronic viral hepatitis and are thus at risk for severe complications like liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). To meet the goals of the World Health Organization (WHO) global hepatitis strategy, there is an urgent need for new immunotherapeutic approaches. These are particularly required for chronic hepatitis B virus infection and - B/D coinfection. AREAS COVERED This review summarizes data on mechanisms of CD8+ T cells failure in chronic hepatitis B, D, C and E virus infection. The relative contribution of the different concepts (viral escape, CD8+ T cell exhaustion, defective priming) will be discussed. On this basis, examples for future therapeutic approaches targeting virus-specific CD8+ T cells for the individual hepatitis viruses will be discussed. EXPERT OPINION Immunotherapeutic approaches targeting virus-specific CD8+ T cells have the potential to change clinical practice, especially in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Further clinical development, however, requires a more detailed understanding of T cell immunology in chronic viral hepatitis. Some important conceptual questions remain to be addressed, e.g. regarding heterogeneity of exhausted virus-specific CD8+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Lang-Meli
- Department of Medicine II, Medical Center - University of Freiburg and Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- IMM-PACT Programm, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Neumann-Haefelin
- Department of Medicine II, Medical Center - University of Freiburg and Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Robert Thimme
- Department of Medicine II, Medical Center - University of Freiburg and Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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Gehl V, O'Rourke CJ, Andersen JB. Immunogenomics of cholangiocarcinoma. Hepatology 2023:01515467-990000000-00649. [PMID: 37972940 DOI: 10.1097/hep.0000000000000688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
The development of cholangiocarcinoma spans years, if not decades, during which the immune system becomes corrupted and permissive to primary tumor development and metastasis. This involves subversion of local immunity at tumor sites, as well as systemic immunity and the wider host response. While immune dysfunction is a hallmark of all cholangiocarcinoma, the specific steps of the cancer-immunity cycle that are perturbed differ between patients. Heterogeneous immune functionality impacts the evolutionary development, pathobiological behavior, and therapeutic response of these tumors. Integrative genomic analyses of thousands of primary tumors have supported a biological rationale for immune-based stratification of patients, encompassing immune cell composition and functionality. However, discerning immune alterations responsible for promoting tumor initiation, maintenance, and progression from those present as bystander events remains challenging. Functionally uncoupling the tumor-promoting or tumor-suppressing roles of immune profiles will be critical for identifying new immunomodulatory treatment strategies and associated biomarkers for patient stratification. This review will discuss the immunogenomics of cholangiocarcinoma, including the impact of genomic alterations on immune functionality, subversion of the cancer-immunity cycle, as well as clinical implications for existing and novel treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virag Gehl
- Department of Health and Medical Sciences, Biotech Research and Innovation Centre (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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7
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Bertoletti A, Le Bert N. Quest for immunological biomarkers in the management of CHB patients. Gut 2023; 72:2012-2014. [PMID: 36922017 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2023-329437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Bertoletti
- Emerging Infectious Diseases Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | - Nina Le Bert
- Emerging Infectious Diseases Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
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Boni C, Rossi M, Montali I, Tiezzi C, Vecchi A, Penna A, Doselli S, Reverberi V, Ceccatelli Berti C, Montali A, Schivazappa S, Laccabue D, Missale G, Fisicaro P. What Is the Current Status of Hepatitis B Virus Viro-Immunology? Clin Liver Dis 2023; 27:819-836. [PMID: 37778772 DOI: 10.1016/j.cld.2023.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
The natural history of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is closely dependent on the dynamic interplay between the host immune response and viral replication. Spontaneous HBV clearance in acute self-limited infection is the result of an adequate and efficient antiviral immune response. Instead, it is widely recognized that in chronic HBV infection, immunologic dysfunction contributes to viral persistence. Long-lasting exposure to high viral antigens, upregulation of multiple co-inhibitory receptors, dysfunctional intracellular signaling pathways and metabolic alterations, and intrahepatic regulatory mechanisms have been described as features ultimately leading to a hierarchical loss of effector functions up to full T-cell exhaustion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Boni
- Unit of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy.
| | - Marzia Rossi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Ilaria Montali
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Camilla Tiezzi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Andrea Vecchi
- Unit of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Amalia Penna
- Unit of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Sara Doselli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Valentina Reverberi
- Unit of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy
| | | | - Anna Montali
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Simona Schivazappa
- Unit of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Diletta Laccabue
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Gabriele Missale
- Unit of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy; Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Paola Fisicaro
- Unit of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy.
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Le Bert N, Fisicaro P. Enolase: a metabolic checkpoint behind diverse exhaustion stages of CD8+ T cells in chronic HBV and HCV. Gut 2023; 72:1814-1815. [PMID: 37673656 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2023-330541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nina Le Bert
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | - Paola Fisicaro
- Unit of Infectious Diseases and Hepatology, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Parma, Parma, Italy
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Lopez-Scarim J, Nambiar SM, Billerbeck E. Studying T Cell Responses to Hepatotropic Viruses in the Liver Microenvironment. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:681. [PMID: 36992265 PMCID: PMC10056334 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11030681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
T cells play an important role in the clearance of hepatotropic viruses but may also cause liver injury and contribute to disease progression in chronic hepatitis B and C virus infections which affect millions of people worldwide. The liver provides a unique microenvironment of immunological tolerance and hepatic immune regulation can modulate the functional properties of T cell subsets and influence the outcome of a virus infection. Extensive research over the last years has advanced our understanding of hepatic conventional CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and unconventional T cell subsets and their functions in the liver environment during acute and chronic viral infections. The recent development of new small animal models and technological advances should further increase our knowledge of hepatic immunological mechanisms. Here we provide an overview of the existing models to study hepatic T cells and review the current knowledge about the distinct roles of heterogeneous T cell populations during acute and chronic viral hepatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Eva Billerbeck
- Division of Hepatology, Department of Medicine and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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