Production‐related metabolic disorders of cattle: ketosis, milk fever and grass staggers

The Most Important Metabolic Diseases in Dairy Cattle during the Transition Period

This review paper provides an in-depth analysis of three critical metabolic diseases affecting dairy cattle such as subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA), ketosis, and hypocalcemia. SARA represents a disorder of ruminal fermentation that is characterized by extended periods of depressed ruminal pH below 5.5-5.6. In the long term, dairy herds experiencing SARA usually exhibit secondary signs of the disease, such as episodes of laminitis, weight loss and poor body condition despite adequate energy intake, and unexplained abscesses usually 3-6 months after an episode of SARA. Depressed milk-fat content is commonly used as a diagnostic tool for SARA. A normal milk-fat test in Holstein dairy cows is >4%, so a milk-fat test of <3% can indicate SARA. However, bulk tank testing of milk fat is inappropriate to diagnose SARA at the herd level, so when >4 cows out of 12 and <60 days in milk are suspected to have SARA it can be considered that the herd has a problem. The rapid or abrupt introduction of fresh cows to high-concentrate diets is the most common cause of SARA. Changes in ruminal bacterial populations when exposed to higher concentrate rations require at least about 3 weeks, and it is recommended that concentrate levels increase by no more than 400 g/day during this period to avoid SARA. Ketosis, a prevalent metabolic disorder in dairy cattle, is scrutinized with a focus on its etiological factors and the physiological changes leading to elevated ketone bodies. In total mix ration-fed herds, an increased risk of mastitis and reduced fertility are usually the first clinical signs of ketosis. All dairy cows in early lactation are at risk of ketosis, with most cases occurring in the first 2-4 weeks of lactation. Cows with a body condition score ≥3.75 on a 5-point scale at calving are at a greater risk of ketosis than those with lower body condition scores. The determination of serum or whole blood acetone, acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) concentration, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), and liver biopsies is considered the best way to detect and monitor subclinical ketosis, while urine or milk cowside tests can also be used in on-farm monitoring programs. Concentrations >1.0 mmol/L or 1.4 mmol/L blood or serum BHB are considered diagnostic of subclinical ketosis. The standard threshold used for blood is 1.2 mmol/L, which corresponds to thresholds of 100 mcmol/L for milk and 15 mg/dL for urine. Oral administration of propylene glycol (250-400 g, every 24 h for 3-5 days) is the standard and most efficacious treatment, as well as additional therapy with bolus glucose treatment. Hypocalcemia is a disease of adult dairy cows in which acute hypocalcemia causes acute to peracute, afebrile, flaccid paralysis that occurs most commonly at or soon after parturition. Dairy cows are at considerable risk for hypocalcemia at the onset of lactation, when daily calcium excretion suddenly increases from about 10 g to 30 g per day. Cows with hypocalcemia have a more profound decrease in blood calcium concentration-typically below 5.5 mg/dL. The prevention of parturient paresis has been historically approached by feeding cows low-calcium diets during the dry period. Negative calcium balance triggers calcium mobilization before calving and better equips the cow to respond to the massive calcium needs at the onset of lactation. Calcium intake must be limited to <20 g per day for calcium restriction to be effective. The most practical and proven method for monitoring hypocalcemia is by feeding cows an acidogenic diet for ~3 weeks before calving. Throughout the review, emphasis is placed on the importance of early diagnosis and proactive management strategies to mitigate the impact of these metabolic diseases on dairy cattle health and productivity. The comprehensive nature of this paper aims to serve as a valuable resource for veterinarians, researchers, and dairy farmers seeking a deeper understanding of these prevalent metabolic disorders in dairy cattle.

Low Magnesium Concentration Enforces Bone Calcium Deposition Irrespective of 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Concentration

Efficient coordination between Mg²⁺ and vitamin D maintains adequate Ca²⁺ levels during lactation. This study explored the possible interaction between Mg²⁺ (0.3, 0.8, and 3 mM) and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (1,25D; 0.05 and 5 nM) during osteogenesis using bovine mesenchymal stem cells. After 21 days, differentiated osteocytes were subjected to OsteoImage analysis, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity measurements, and immunocytochemistry of NT5E, ENG (endoglin), SP7 (osterix), SPP1 (osteopontin), and the BGLAP gene product osteocalcin. The mRNA expression of NT5E, THY1, ENG, SP7, BGLAP, CYP24A1, VDR, SLC41A1, SLC41A2, SLC41A3, TRPM6, TRPM7, and NIPA1 was also assessed. Reducing the Mg²⁺ concentration in the medium increased the accumulation of mineral hydroxyapatite and ALP activity. There was no change in the immunocytochemical localization of stem cell markers. Expression of CYP24A1 was higher in all groups receiving 5 nM 1,25D. There were tendencies for higher mRNA abundance of THY1, BGLAP, and NIPA1 in cells receiving 0.3 mM Mg²⁺ and 5 nM 1,25D. In conclusion, low levels of Mg²⁺ greatly enhanced the deposition of bone hydroxyapatite matrix. The effect of Mg²⁺ was not modulated by 1,25D, although the expression of certain genes (including BGLAP) tended to be increased by the combination of low Mg²⁺ and high 1,25D concentrations.

Hyperketonemia: A Marker of Disease, a Sign of a High-Producing Dairy Cow, or Both?

This review covers the history and nomenclature of ketosis, the source and use of ketones in transition cows, and the controversial role of hyperketonemia's association with health and production outcomes in dairy cows. With the goal of assisting veterinarians with on-farm diagnostic and treatment methods, the authors present current and evolving means of direct and indirect hyperketonemia detection as well as a summary of treatment modalities and their efficacy. They encourage veterinarians to include hyperketonemia testing as part of their routine physical examinations and contemplate day in milk at hyperketonemia diagnosis when designing treatment and management strategies.

Considerations in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Early Lactation Calcium Disturbances

This article reviews the history of clinical hypocalcemia and the evolving definition of subclinical hypocalcemia, targeting a concept for consideration that not all hypocalcemia is negative. With a goal of presenting bovine practitioners information to assist with individual animal hypocalcemia diagnosis and treatment as well as herd-level monitoring and prevention, we present current methods of direct calcium measurement, therapeutic interventions for clinical hypocalcemia, and postpartum calcium supplementation options and their efficacy. We encourage veterinarians to understand calcium dynamics in the immediate postpartum period and evaluate how individual cow therapy and herd prevention protocols can assist with supporting calcium regulation.

Aspects of transition cow metabolomics-Part I: Effects of a metaphylactic butaphosphan and cyanocobalamin treatment on the metabolome in liver, blood, and urine in cows with different liver metabotypes

Dairy cows in modern production systems are at risk to develop metabolic disorders during the transition period. Reasons for individual differences in susceptibility, as well as the underlying pathomechanisms, are still only partially understood. The development of metaphylactic treatment protocols is needed. In this context, an on-farm prospective 3-fold blinded randomized study involving 80 German Holstein cows was performed throughout 1 yr. The trial involved a thorough recording of the production and clinical traits, clinical chemistry, and liver biopsies and blood and urine sampling at d 14 (mean: 12 d, range: 1-26 d) antepartum (AP), and d 7 (7, 4-13) and 28 (28, 23-34) postpartum (PP) for metabolomics analyses. Two groups received a treatment with butaphosphan and cyanocobalamin (BCC) at either the dosage recommended by the manufacturer or the double dosage (5 or 10 mL/100 kg of body weight 10% butaphosphan and 0.005% cyanocobalamin (Catosal, Bayer Animal Health), n = 20 in each group, parity: 4.2 ± 2.0 and 3.4 ± 1.3, respectively (mean ± SD)] and one group a placebo treatment (NaCl 0.9%, n = 40, parity: 4.0 ± 1.9). The animals were treated at 6 time points (7, 6, and 5 d AP, and 1, 2, and 3 d PP) via intravenous injection. Mass spectroscopy-based targeted metabolomics analysis of blood plasma and liver samples were performed using the AbsoluteIDQ p180 kit (Biocrates Life Sciences), whereas the urine samples were analyzed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Statistical analysis was performed using multivariate [partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA)] and univariate methods (linear mixed model). Multivariate data analysis (PLS-DA plots) of the liver metabolome revealed 3 different metabotypes (A = medium, B = minor, C = large alterations in liver metabolome profile between AP and PP status). Metabotype B animals were characterized by higher PP lipomobilization (stronger PP body condition decrease and higher blood bilirubin, fatty acids, gamma-glutamyltransferase, and triglyceride levels) and a higher occurrence of transition cow diseases, compared with the animals in metabotype C. Analysis of the feeding data showed that the period of metabotype B animals (calving in a distinct time frame) was characterized by a decreased grass silage quality. The PP liver metabolome of the metabotype C animals was characterized by higher concentrations of AA, acylcarnitines, lysoPC and sphingomyelins compared with metabotype B. For the metaphylactic treatment with BCC a dose-dependent effect was confirmed, differing between the metabotypes. In all matrices and metabotypes at various time points significant treatment effects were observed, with different profiles in clinical chemistry and as well in metabolomics data. The most clear-cut treatment effect was observed in metabotype B in the liver at 7 d PP, characterized by an increase in several acylcarnitines and phosphatidylcholines, indicating a more efficient influx and oxidation of fatty acids in mitochondria and thereby an increase in energy supply and more efficient triglyceride export in the liver. The results from the liver metabolomics analysis support the application of an indication-based metaphylactic treatment with BCC.

Rumination time around dry-off relative to the development of diseases in early-lactation cows

Monitoring rumination time (RT) around the time of calving is an effective way of identifying cows at risk of disease in early lactation. However, this only allows for the identification of cows a few days before the onset of clinical signs; thus, effective preventive measures cannot be implemented. Recent research has suggested that biomarkers of immune and metabolic function measured at dry-off (DO) can predict higher disease risk in early lactation. Nevertheless, the extent to which RT around DO is associated with early-lactation disease risk remains unexplored. Thus, the objective of this study was to compare RT in the weeks before and after DO between cows that did and did not experience health disorders in early lactation. For this, we conducted an observational retrospective cohort study utilizing the records available from a large commercial dairy herd in which RT is recorded daily using an automated system. Daily RT from -7 to +14 d relative to DO from 2,258 DO cycles and their respective health records in the first 60 d in milk were used. Differences in RT between animals with and without a disease history were tested with the Student t-test with Bonferroni adjustment. Mixed linear regression analyses were performed to assess differences in RT around DO and the association of RT with the occurrence of mastitis, metritis, retained placenta, hyperketonemia, lameness, hypocalcemia, pneumonia, and displaced abomasum. Rumination time decreased abruptly at DO and remained lower for 3 to 4 d compared with the days before DO. On average, cows affected by hyperketonemia and lameness ruminated 9.83 ± 6.40 and 15.00 ± 6.08 min/d less than unaffected cows, respectively. Cows that developed lameness in the first 60 d in milk showed reduced RT from 1 to 3 d following DO compared with cows that were not diagnosed with lameness in early lactation. However, RT around DO was not associated with the occurrence of the other health disorders studied here. Our results demonstrate that DO is a stressful event for dairy cows resulting in decreased RT for several days. Furthermore, the association between RT around DO and some early-lactation diseases suggests that RT could be a useful tool to identify at-risk cows early enough to allow for preventive interventions. Further studies should investigate the diagnostic utility of incorporating RT data early in the dry period in the disease prediction algorithms of rumination sensors.

Prepartum behavior changes in dry Holstein cows at risk of postpartum diseases

The objective of this study was to identify changes in prepartum behavior associated with the incidence of postpartum diseases in dairy cows. Multiparous Holstein cows (n = 489) were monitored with accelerometers for 3 wk prepartum. Accelerometers measured steps, time at the feed bunk, frequency of meals, lying bouts, and lying time. Postpartum health was monitored from 0 to 30 d in milk and cases of metritis, mastitis, retained placenta, displaced abomasum (DA), ketosis, and hypocalcemia were recorded. A multivariate linear mixed model was used to assess differences in behavior between diseased and not diagnosed diseased cows. A multivariate logistic regression was used to predict the occurrence of diseases. Predictors were selected using a manual backward stepwise selection process of variables until all remaining predictors had a P < 0.10. Models were submitted to a leave-one-out cross-validation process, and sensitivity, specificity, false discovery rate, and false omission rate were calculated. On average, over the 3-wk prepartum period, cows not diagnosed diseased (n = 345) took 1,613 ± 38 steps, spent 181 ± 7.1 min at the feed bunk, had 8.3 ± 0.17 meals, had 9.8 ± 0.32 lying bouts, and spent 742 ± 11.3 min lying per day. Behavior of diseased cows (n = 144) did not differ from those not diagnosed diseased. However, differences for specific diseases were observed, being significant in the week prepartum. When considering changes in behavior for only the week before calving, cows with metritis had more lying bouts (+21%), cows with DA had fewer meals (-24%) and tended to take fewer steps (-18%), and cows with ketosis had fewer meals (-22%) and spent less time at the feed bunk (-40%). Prediction models with the best outcomes were found for DA and ketosis using data of the prepartum week only. The model for DA included time at the feed bunk. Cross-validation resulted in a 80% sensitivity, 58.1% specificity, 59.2% accuracy, 91.2% false discovery rate, and 1.7% false omission rate. The model for ketosis included time at the feed bunk and number of meals. Cross-validation resulted in 64.3% sensitivity, 59.3% specificity, 59.5% accuracy, 93.0% false discovery rate, and 2.8% false omission rate. Prepartum behavior of cows affected with metritis, DA, and ketosis was different from that of cows not diagnosed with diseases. Prediction equations were able to classify cows at high or low risk of ketosis and DA and can be used in taking management decisions, but the high false discovery rates requires further refinement.

Predicting Disease in Transition Dairy Cattle Based on Behaviors Measured Before Calving

Simple Summary

Dairy cattle often become ill after calving. We developed models designed to predict which cows are likely to become ill based upon measures of the cows’ feeding and competitive behaviors before calving. Our models had high sensitivity (73–71%), specificity (80–84%), positive predictive values (73–77%), and negative predictive values (80–80%) for both cows that had previously calved and for those calving for the first time. We conclude that behaviors at the feed bunk before calving can predict cows at risk of becoming sick in the weeks after calving.

Abstract

Dairy cattle are particularly susceptible to metritis, hyperketonemia (HYK), and mastitis in the weeks after calving. These high-prevalence transition diseases adversely affect animal welfare, milk production, and profitability. Our aim was to use prepartum behavior to predict which cows have an increased risk of developing these conditions after calving. The behavior of 213 multiparous and 105 primiparous Holsteins was recorded for approximately three weeks before calving by an electronic feeding system. Cows were also monitored for signs of metritis, HYK, and mastitis in the weeks after calving. The data were split using a stratified random method: we used 70% of our data (hereafter referred to as the “training” dataset) to develop the model and the remaining 30% of data (i.e., the “test” dataset) to assess the model’s predictive ability. Separate models were developed for primiparous and multiparous animals. The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve using the test dataset for multiparous cows was 0.83, sensitivity and specificity were 73% and 80%, positive predictive value (PPV) was 73%, and negative predictive value (NPV) was 80%. The area under the ROC curve using the test dataset for primiparous cows was 0.86, sensitivity and specificity were 71% and 84%, PPV was 77%, and NPV was 80%. We conclude that prepartum behavior can be used to predict cows at risk of metritis, HYK, and mastitis after calving.