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Vairo FPE, Chwal BC, Perini S, Ferreira MAP, de Freitas Lopes AC, Saute JAM. A systematic review and evidence-based guideline for diagnosis and treatment of Menkes disease. Mol Genet Metab 2019; 126:6-13. [PMID: 30594472 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Menkes disease is a rare X-linked neurodegenerative disorder caused by defect in copper metabolism. Parenteral copper supplementation has been used as a potential disease-modifying treatment of Menkes disease for decades. However, recent evidence suggests its efficacy only when treatment is started within days after birth, which also has important implications related to the techniques that enable early diagnosis. We aim at proposing a guideline for prenatal and neonatal diagnosis and for disease-modifying treatment of Menkes disease, guided by a systematic review of the literature, and built in conjunction with medical experts, methodologists and patient representatives. Thirteen articles were used for our recommendations that were based on GRADE system. Reviewed evidence suggests that prenatal genetic diagnosis in families with previous diagnosis of Menkes disease is feasible; analysis of plasma catecholamine levels is accurate for neonatal diagnosis of Menkes disease; treatment with copper-histidine is effective to increase survival and reduce neurologic burden of the disease if initiated in the neonatal period; and, treatment indication should not be guided by patient's genotype. In conclusion, our guideline can contribute to standardize some aspects of the clinical care of patients with Menkes disease, especially reducing disease burden and mortality and providers' and families' anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Pinto E Vairo
- Medical Genetics Service, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Center for Individualized Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, USA; Department of Clinical Genomics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, USA
| | - Bruna Cristine Chwal
- Medical Genetics Service, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Silvana Perini
- Nucleo de Avaliação de Tecnologia em Saúde, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Carolina de Freitas Lopes
- Executive Secretariat of the National Committee for Health Technology Incorporation (CONITEC), Brazilian Ministry of Health, Brazil
| | - Jonas Alex Morales Saute
- Medical Genetics Service, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Neurology Service, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Internal Medicine Department, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Postgraduate program in Medicine: Medical Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
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2
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Abstract
Trace elements are chemical elements needed in minute amounts for normal physiology. Some of the physiologically relevant trace elements include iodine, copper, iron, manganese, zinc, selenium, cobalt and molybdenum. Of these, some are metals, and in particular, transition metals. The different electron shells of an atom carry different energy levels, with those closest to the nucleus being lowest in energy. The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the reactivity of such an atom. The electron shells are divided in sub-shells, and in particular the third shell has s, p and d sub-shells. Transition metals are strictly defined as elements whose atom has an incomplete d sub-shell. This incomplete d sub-shell makes them prone to chemical reactions, particularly redox reactions. Transition metals of biologic importance include copper, iron, manganese, cobalt and molybdenum. Zinc is not a transition metal, since it has a complete d sub-shell. Selenium, on the other hand, is strictly speaking a nonmetal, although given its chemical properties between those of metals and nonmetals, it is sometimes considered a metalloid. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the inborn errors of metal and metalloid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos R. Ferreira
- Division of Genetics and Metabolism, Children’s National Health System, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
- Section on Human Biochemical Genetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - William A. Gahl
- Section on Human Biochemical Genetics, Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
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3
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Cao B, Yang X, Chen Y, Huang Q, Wu Y, Gu Q, Xiao J, Yang H, Pan H, Chen J, Sun Y, Ren L, Zhao C, Deng Y, Yang Y, Chang X, Yang Z, Zhang Y, Niu Z, Wang J, Wu X, Wang J, Jiang Y. Identification of novel ATP7A mutations and prenatal diagnosis in Chinese patients with Menkes disease. Metab Brain Dis 2017; 32:1123-1131. [PMID: 28397151 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-017-9985-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Menkes disease (MD) is a fatal X-linked multisystem disease caused by mutations in ATP7A. In this study, clinical and genetic analysis was performed in 24 male MD patients. Development delay, seizures, kinky coarse hair, and dystonia were found in 24, 22, 24, and 24 patients, respectively. Serum ceruloplasmin/copper tested in 19 patients was low. Abnormal classic features of MD presented in the MRI/MRA of 19 patients. Seventeen mutations of ATP7A were identified in 22 patients. Twelve were novel mutations including three small deletion/insertion, one missense mutation, two nonsense mutations, three splicing-site mutations, and three gross deletions. Twenty-two patients were genetically diagnosed; neither point mutation nor deletion/duplication was found in two of them. c.2179G > A found in five patients might be a hot-spot mutation. Prenatal molecular diagnosis was performed for five unrelated fetuses (1 female and 4 male), which found four fetuses to be wild type and one male carried the same mutation as the proband. This study of the largest sample of Chinese MD patients examined to date discovered the unique phenotype and genotype spectrum in Chinese patients with 12 novel mutations of ATP7A, and that c.2179G > A might be a hot-spot mutation in MD patients. Five successful prenatal diagnosis contributed important information for MD families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binbin Cao
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Xiaoping Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, 030001, China
| | - Yinyin Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, 030001, China
| | - Qionghui Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University People's Hospital, Beijing, 100044, China
| | - Ye Wu
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Qiang Gu
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Jiangxi Xiao
- Department of Radiology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Huixia Yang
- Department of Obstetrics, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Hong Pan
- Department of Central Lab, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Junya Chen
- Department of Obstetrics, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Yu Sun
- Department of Obstetrics, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Li Ren
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, 030001, China
| | - Chengfeng Zhao
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
- Department of Epilepsy, Central Hospital of Jiamusi, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, Heilongjiang Province, 154007, China
| | - Yanhua Deng
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, 030001, China
| | - Yanling Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Xingzhi Chang
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Zhixian Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Yuehua Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Zhengping Niu
- Department of Neurology, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, 030001, China
| | - Juli Wang
- Department of Epilepsy, Central Hospital of Jiamusi, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, Heilongjiang Province, 154007, China
| | - Xiru Wu
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China
| | - Jingmin Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China.
| | - Yuwu Jiang
- Department of Pediatrics, Peking University First Hospital, No. 1 Xi'anmen Street, West District, Beijing, 100034, China.
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Abstract
Disorders of copper homeostasis are currently recognized across the life span. Their recognition and links to human disease have spanned several decades, beginning with the recognition of a degenerative disorder in the offspring of sheep grazing in copper-deficient pastures, through to the description of infants suffering from a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by epileptic seizures, developmental regression, failure to thrive, and an unusual hair quality (giving the condition its distinctive label of “kinky hair disease”). In this review, we trace the historical background and describe the biochemistry and physiology of copper metabolism and transport, inheritance patterns, molecular genetics, and genotype–phenotype correlations based on current understanding of the disorder. It is clear from the clinical presentations and variants that disorders of copper homeostasis include phenotypes ranging from mild occipital horn syndrome to intermediate and severe forms of classical Menkes disease. The symptoms involve multiple organ systems such as brain, lung, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, connective tissue, and skin. A multisystem disorder needs a multidisciplinary approach to care, as treatment interventions permit longer survival for some individuals. Animal models have been developed to help screen treatment options and provide a better understanding of these disorders in the laboratory. Finally, we propose a multidisciplinary approach to promote continued research (both basic and clinical) to improve survival, quality of life, and care for these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Asuri N Prasad
- Department of Pediatrics; Section of Pediatric Neurology; Division of Clinical Neurological Sciences; Child Health Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada
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5
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Verrotti A, Carelli A, Coppola G. Epilepsy in children with Menkes disease: a systematic review of literature. J Child Neurol 2014; 29:1757-64. [PMID: 25038123 DOI: 10.1177/0883073814541469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Menkes disease is a lethal multisystemic disorder of copper metabolism characterized by connective tissue abnormalities, progressive neurodegeneration and peculiar "kinky hair." Epilepsy is one of the main clinical features of this disease but it has been described in detail by only a few authors. Most patients develop seizures from 2 to 3 months of age, accompanied by a neurodevelopmental regression. The history of epilepsy is usually characterized by 3 stages: an early stage with focal clonic seizures and status epilepticus, an intermediate stage with infantile spasms, and a late stage with multifocal, myoclonic, and tonic seizures. At the onset, epilepsy can be controlled with anticonvulsant therapy, whereas with the progression of disease, it becomes extremely resistant to all antiepileptic drugs. In this article, we analyze clinical and electroencephalographic (EEG) characteristics of epilepsy in patients with this syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alessia Carelli
- Department of Pediatrics, Perugia University, Perugia, Italy
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6
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Verrotti A, Cusmai R, Darra F, Martelli P, Accorsi P, Bergamo S, Bevivino E, Coppola G, Freri E, Grosso S, Matricardi S, Parisi P, Sartori S, Spalice A, Specchio N, Carelli A, Zini D, Dalla Bernardina B, Giordano L. Epilepsy in Menkes disease: an electroclinical long-term study of 28 patients. Epilepsy Res 2014; 108:1597-603. [PMID: 25218893 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Revised: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epilepsy is a frequent and severe feature of Menkes disease (MD) but only few studies described the long-term evolution of these children. We report a series of 28 epileptic MD patients, with clinical characteristics, EEG abnormalities, brain malformations and long-term outcome. METHODS EEG, clinical characteristics and neuroimaging features in 28 MD patients were analyzed at the onset of epilepsy and after long-term follow-up (at least 4 years). We subdivided the patients into two groups: Group 1, 16 patients who received a subcutaneous copper-histidine treatment, and Group 2 including 12 patients who did not get any therapies. RESULTS The large majority of our patients presented at the onset of epilepsy focal seizures (FS) and infantile spasms (IS). Five patients had recurrent status epilepticus (SE). During the follow-up, patients showed multiple seizure types: 6 patients had generalized tonic clonic seizures (GCT), 6 patients presented IS, 10 children had FS, 11 had myoclonic jerks and 3 had SE. Therapy with various antiepileptic drugs had poor efficacy, except in three patients who showed seizure disappearance with consequent discontinuation of antiepileptic therapy. There was no difference of neurological outcome among the two groups analyzed. CONCLUSIONS Epilepsy in MD is a difficult to treat problem. At the onset, the most frequent type of seizures are FC and IS; in the next months, other kinds of seizures can appear. Many children are drug resistant. Institution of replacement therapy with copper-histidine seems to be not beneficial for epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Raffaella Cusmai
- Division of Neurology, Metabolic Unit "Bambino Gesù" Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Paola Martelli
- Child Neuropsychiatry, Regional Epilepsy Center, Brescia, Italy
| | | | - Silvia Bergamo
- Pediatric Neurology Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University and City Hospital of Padua, Italy
| | - Elsa Bevivino
- Division of Neurology, Metabolic Unit "Bambino Gesù" Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giangennaro Coppola
- Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Salerno, Italy
| | - Elena Freri
- Department of Pediatric Neuroscience, Carlo Besta Neurological Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Salvatore Grosso
- Pediatric Neurology-Immunology and Endocrinology Unit, Department of Pediatrics, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Sara Matricardi
- Department of Pediatric Neuroscience, Carlo Besta Neurological Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Pasquale Parisi
- Child Neurology, Chair of Pediatrics, II Faculty of Medicine, "La Sapienza" University, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Sartori
- Pediatric Neurology Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, University and City Hospital of Padua, Italy
| | - Alberto Spalice
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Rome "La Sapienza", Rome, Italy
| | - Nicola Specchio
- Division of Neurology, Metabolic Unit "Bambino Gesù" Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Daniela Zini
- Child Neuropsychiatry, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | | | - Lucio Giordano
- Child Neuropsychiatry, Regional Epilepsy Center, Brescia, Italy
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Electro-clinical features and magnetic resonance imaging correlates in Menkes disease. Brain Dev 2013; 35:398-405. [PMID: 22921468 DOI: 10.1016/j.braindev.2012.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2012] [Revised: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 07/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Epilepsy is an early and important feature in Menkes disease (MD), an X-linked recessive neurodegenerative disorder of childhood with defect in copper metabolism. There are only few reports on the electro-clinical and magnetic resonance imaging correlates in Menkes disease. The current study describes the electro-clinical features in MD in relation with the structural findings on MRI. PATIENTS AND METHODS Six patients from five families were evaluated between 2005 and 2011. Their diagnosis was based on the characteristic morphological features, microscopic evidence of pili torti and low copper and ceruloplasmin levels. All the patients underwent MRI and EEG as part of the evaluation. RESULTS All patients had classical form of MD with typical morphological features. All but one patient had refractory seizures. Seizure types included multifocal clonic seizures (n=3), myoclonic jerks (n=4) and tonic spasms (n=1). EEG was markedly abnormal in all except in the patient without clinical seizures. While focal epileptiform discharges predominated before six months of age modified hypsarrhythmia was characteristically noted thereafter. MR Imaging revealed abnormalities in all patients, with cerebral atrophy and delayed myelination being the most common observations. Other features noted were subdural effusion (n=3), leukoencephalopathy (n=3) and basal ganglia signal changes (n=1). Follow up imaging in three patients showed resolution of white matter signal intensity changes. CONCLUSIONS Electro-clinical features in Menkes disease are age dependent and evolve sequentially. White matter changes coincided with acute exacerbation of seizures. There was fair correlation between the electro-clinical features and structural findings on MRI.
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8
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Abstract
Two copper-transporting ATPases are essential for mammalian copper homeostasis: ATP7A, which mediates copper uptake in the gastrointestinal tract and copper delivery to the brain, and ATP7B, which mediates copper excretion by the liver into bile. Mutations in ATP7A may cause three distinct X-linked conditions in infants, children, or adolescents: Menkes disease, occipital horn syndrome (OHS), and a newly identified allelic variant restricted to motor neurons called X-linked distal hereditary motor neuropathy. These three disorders show variable neurological findings and ages of onset. Menkes disease presents in the first several months of life with failure to thrive, developmental delay, and seizures. OHS features more subtle developmental delays, dysautonomia, and connective tissue abnormalities beginning in early childhood. ATP7A-related distal motor neuropathy presents even later, often not until adolescence or early adulthood, and involves a neurological phenotype that resembles Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, type 2. These disorders may be treatable through copper replacement or ATP7A gene therapy. In contrast, mutations in ATP7B cause a single known phenotype, Wilson disease, an autosomal recessive trait that results from copper overload rather than deficiency. Dysarthria, dystonia, tremor, gait abnormalities, and psychiatric problems may be presenting symptoms, at ages from 10 to 40 years. Excellent treatment options exist for Wilson disease, based on copper chelation. In the past 2 years (2012-2013), three new autosomal recessive copper metabolism conditions have been recognized: 1) Huppke-Brendel syndrome caused by mutations in an acetyl CoA transporter needed for acetylation of one or more copper proteins, 2) CCS deficiency caused by mutations in the copper chaperone to SODI, and 3) MEDNIK syndrome, which revealed that mutations in the σ1A subunit of adaptor protein complex 1 (AP-1) have detrimental effects on trafficking of ATP7A and ATP7B.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen G Kaler
- Unit on Human Copper Metabolism, Molecular Medicine Program, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA.
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Prasad AN, Levin S, Rupar CA, Prasad C. Menkes disease and infantile epilepsy. Brain Dev 2011; 33:866-76. [PMID: 21924848 DOI: 10.1016/j.braindev.2011.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2011] [Revised: 07/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Menkes disease, an X linked recessive neurodegenerative disorder, results from a mutation in the gene coding for the copper transporting ATPase (ATP7A). Epilepsy is a major clinical feature of this disorder. We describe the clinical presentation, evolution of epilepsy and explore the biological underpinnings of epileptogenesis in Menkes disease. METHODS Longitudinal case study illustrating the natural history of epilepsy and results of subcutaneous cupric chloride supplementation in a patient with Menkes disease and literature review. RESULTS The onset and evolution of epilepsy in Menkes disease is marked by different stages. Early presentations typically involve focal seizures, with progression to epileptic spasms and a chronic late stage of epilepsy characterized by tonic seizures, myoclonic jerks, and multifocal epileptiform activity on the EEG. Morphological correlates in the brain include evidence of atrophy of grey matter, ventriculomegaly, tortuous intracranial vasculature, and white matter signal changes consistent with loss of myelin and axons. The presence of significant lactic acidosis in brain and cerebrospinal fluid suggests widespread disturbance in oxidative metabolism. Molecular consequences of the pathogenic ATP7A gene mutation lead to impairment in copper transport, which in turn causes deficiencies of key copper containing enzymes (dopamine β hydroxylase and cytochrome c oxidase). Microarray studies suggest widespread effects in dysregulation of genes involved in cellular responses to oxidative stress, ribosomal translation, signal transduction, mitochondrial function, and immune responses. Impairment of copper mediated NMDA receptor function further enhances neuronal excitability, excitotoxic neuronal injury, setting up a cascade that creates conditions for epileptogenesis to follow. CONCLUSION Neurological manifestations are likely related to perturbations in copper dependent enzymatic pathways involved in neurotransmitter and energy metabolism. Early diagnosis and institution of copper supplementation has been shown to be beneficial particularly in patients with residual ATP7A activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asuri N Prasad
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
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Abstract
This Review summarizes recent advances in understanding copper-transporting ATPase 1 (ATP7A), and examines the neurological phenotypes associated with dysfunction of this protein. Involvement of ATP7A in axonal outgrowth, synapse integrity and neuronal activation underscores the fundamental importance of copper metabolism to neurological function. Defects in ATP7A cause Menkes disease, an infantile-onset, lethal condition. Neonatal diagnosis and early treatment with copper injections enhance survival in patients with this disease, and can normalize clinical outcomes if mutant ATP7A molecules retain small amounts of residual activity. Gene replacement rescues a mouse model of Menkes disease, suggesting a potential therapeutic approach for patients with complete loss-of-function ATP7A mutations. Remarkably, a newly discovered ATP7A disorder-isolated distal motor neuropathy-has none of the characteristic clinical or biochemical abnormalities of Menkes disease or its milder allelic variant occipital horn syndrome (OHS), instead resembling Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2. These findings indicate that ATP7A has a crucial but previously unappreciated role in motor neuron maintenance, and that the mechanism underlying ATP7A-related distal motor neuropathy is distinct from Menkes disease and OHS pathophysiology. Collectively, these insights refine our knowledge of the neurology of ATP7A-related copper transport diseases and pave the way for further progress in understanding ATP7A function.
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Kaler SG, Liew CJ, Donsante A, Hicks JD, Sato S, Greenfield JC. Molecular correlates of epilepsy in early diagnosed and treated Menkes disease. J Inherit Metab Dis 2010; 33:583-9. [PMID: 20652413 PMCID: PMC3113468 DOI: 10.1007/s10545-010-9118-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2010] [Revised: 04/14/2010] [Accepted: 04/20/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Epilepsy is a major feature of Menkes disease, an X-linked recessive infantile neurodegenerative disorder caused by mutations in ATP7A, which produces a copper-transporting ATPase. Three prior surveys indicated clinical seizures and electroencephalographic (EEG) abnormalities in a combined 27 of 29 (93%) symptomatic Menkes disease patients diagnosed at 2 months of age or older. To assess the influence of earlier, presymptomatic diagnosis and treatment on seizure semiology and brain electrical activity, we evaluated 71 EEGs in 24 Menkes disease patients who were diagnosed and treated with copper injections in early infancy (≤6 weeks of age), and whose ATP7A mutations we determined. Clinical seizures were observed in only 12.5% (3/24) of these patients, although 46% (11/24) had at least one abnormal EEG tracing, including 50% of patients with large deletions in ATP7A, 50% of those with small deletions, 60% of those with nonsense mutations, and 57% of those with canonical splice junction mutations. In contrast, five patients with mutations shown to retain partial function, either via some correct RNA splicing or residual copper transport capacity, had neither clinical seizures nor EEG abnormalities. Our findings suggest that early diagnosis and treatment improve brain electrical activity and decrease seizure occurrence in classical Menkes disease irrespective of the precise molecular defect. Subjects with ATP7A mutations that retain some function seem particularly well protected by early intervention against the possibility of epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen G Kaler
- Unit on Human Copper Metabolism, Molecular Medicine Program, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1853, USA.
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12
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Bindu PS, Sinha S, Taly AB, Kovur JME, Gayathri N, Arunodaya GR. Menkes syndrome presenting as myoclonic seizures: neuroimaging and EEG observations. J Child Neurol 2007; 22:452-5. [PMID: 17621528 DOI: 10.1177/0883073807301931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The authors report an 11-month-old boy with Menkes kinky hair disease who presented with global delay in acquiring milestones and repeated myoclonic jerks. He had scanty, hypopigmented scalp hairs with steely wool-like texture and intervening zones of alopecia. There was low serum ceruloplasmin (5 mg/dL) and copper (24.2 microg/dL). Neuroimaging of the brain revealed marked cerebral atrophy and significant delayed myelination. Magnetic resonance angiography showed tortuous cerebral and neck blood vessels. There was poor therapeutic response to symptomatic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- P S Bindu
- Department of Neurology, NIMHANS, Karnataka, India
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13
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Bahi-Buisson N, Kaminska A, Nabbout R, Barnerias C, Desguerre I, De Lonlay P, Mayer M, Plouin P, Dulac O, Chiron C. Epilepsy in Menkes Disease: Analysis of Clinical Stages. Epilepsia 2006; 47:380-6. [PMID: 16499764 DOI: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2006.00432.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Epilepsy is one of the main features of Menkes disease (MD), although it is not described in depth. To determine the spectrum of epilepsy, we studied its main characteristics. METHODS Based on clinical charts, we retrospectively analyzed the evolution of electroclinical features of 12 patients with confirmed MD. RESULTS Epilepsy could be divided into three periods: (a) an early stage (median age, 3 months), characterized by focal clonic status epilepticus, usually triggered by fever (10 patients). Ictal EEG showed runs of slow spike-waves and slow waves in the posterior regions, and interictal EEG multifocal and polymorphic slow waves (three cases), or mixed slow spike-waves and slow waves (seven cases). Partial seizure control was obtained in nine patients during 5.9 months; (b) an intermediate stage (median age, 10 months) with intractable infantile spasms (11 patients) in which interictal EEG demonstrated modified hypsarrhythmia (seven cases), diffuse irregular slow waves and spike-waves (four cases). Six patients died at the median age of 15 months; and (c) a late stage in the six remaining patients (median age, 25 months), with multifocal seizures, tonic spasms, and myoclonus in four patients, whereas two patients became seizure free. Interictal EEG showed multifocal high-amplitude activity, mixed with irregular slow waves in all six cases. These patients died at the median age of 3.6 years. CONCLUSIONS Based on a relatively large series of MD patients with a quite prolonged survival, we individualized three successive periods in the course of epilepsy: early focal status, then infantile spasms, and then myoclonic and multifocal epilepsy after age 2 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Bahi-Buisson
- Service de Maladies métaboliques et Neurologie Pédiatrique, Hôpital Necker Enfants Malades, 149 rue de Sevres, 75743 Paris cedex 15, France.
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15
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Abstract
PURPOSE To report the prevalence and clinical significance of ocular findings in 20 patients with Menkes' syndrome recruited for a clinical trial at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD). DESIGN Retrospective observational case series. PARTICIPANTS Twenty patients with Menkes' syndrome enrolled in a clinical trial at the NICHHD, who underwent ophthalmic evaluation at the National Eye Institute from 1990 through 1997. METHODS Review of clinical ophthalmic examination records, photographs, and visual evoked potential recordings. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Prevalence of ophthalmic signs of unusual frequency in patients with Menkes' syndrome. RESULTS There was a high prevalence of very poor visual acuity (8 patients), myopia at 21 months old or younger (5 of 9 patients this age who underwent cycloplegic refraction), strabismus (11 of 18 patients whose motility was evaluated), blue irides (15 of 16 patients whose iris color was documented), iris stromal hypoplasia and bilateral peripheral transillumination (7 and 3 patients, respectively), peripheral retinal hypopigmentation (7 of 18 patients whose retinal periphery was noted at the initial examination), and aberrant eyelashes (5 patients). CONCLUSIONS Patients with Menkes' syndrome exhibit a high prevalence of several ocular findings, including some (very poor visual acuity, myopia, strabismus) that may warrant special care. Early ocular examination is thus indicated for patients with Menkes' syndrome, particularly those with mild variants of the disease, whose neurologic status is better and lifespan is longer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice T Gasch
- Washington National Eye Center, Washington Hospital Center, DC, USA
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16
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Abstract
The clinical manifestations of classical Menkes disease, mild Menkes disease and occipital horn syndrome are reviewed. Menkes disease is a neurodegenerative disease with X-linked recessive inheritance. Orally administered copper accumulates in the intestine, resulting in the failure of copper absorption. The primary metabolic defect that causes copper accumulation in the intestine is present in almost all extrahepatic tissues. The blood, liver and brain are in a state of copper deficiency, which is due to defective copper absorption. The characteristic features, including neurological disturbances, arterial degeneration and hair abnormalities, can be explained by the decrease in cuproenzyme activities. DNA-based diagnosis is now possible. Mild Menkes disease and occipital horn syndrome, which show milder forms than Menkes disease, have been identified as genetic disorders resulting from mutations in the Menkes disease gene. Because the clinical spectrum of Menkes disease is wide, males with mental retardation and connective tissue abnormalities should be evaluated for biochemical evidence of defective copper transport. The treatment accepted currently is parenteral administration of copper. When treatment is started in patients with classical Menkes disease above the age of 2 months, it does not improve the neurological degeneration. When the treatment is initiated in newborn babies affected with this disease, the neurological degeneration can be prevented in some, but not all, cases. Moreover, early treatment cannot improve non-neurological problems, such as connective tissue laxity. Therefore, alternative therapies for Menkes disease and occipital horn syndrome should be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Kodama
- Department of Pediatrics, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
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17
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Menkes
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Cedars Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90212-3216, USA
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18
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Abstract
Menkes disease and occipital horn syndrome (OHS) are related disorders of copper transport that involve abnormal neurodevelopment, connective tissue problems, and often premature death. Location of the gene responsible for these conditions on the X chromosome was indicated by pedigree analysis from the time of these syndromes' earliest descriptions. Characterization of an affected female with an X-autosomal translocation was used to identify the Menkes/OHS gene, which encodes a highly evolutionarily conserved, copper-transporting P-type ATPase. The gene normally is expressed in nearly all human tissues, and it localizes to the trans-Golgi network of cells. However, in over 70% of Menkes and OHS patients studied, expression of this gene has been demonstrated to be abnormal. Major gene deletions detectable by Southern blotting account for 15-20% of patients, and an interesting spectrum of other mutations is evident among 58 families whose precise molecular defects have been reported as of this writing. The center region of the gene seems particularly prone to mutation, and those that influence mRNA processing and splicing appear to be relatively common. Further advances in understanding the molecular and cell biological mechanisms involved in normal copper transport may ultimately yield new and better approaches to the management of these disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- S G Kaler
- Clinical Neuroscience Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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19
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White SR, Reese K, Sato S, Kaler SG. Spectrum of EEG findings in Menkes disease. ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY AND CLINICAL NEUROPHYSIOLOGY 1993; 87:57-61. [PMID: 7687955 DOI: 10.1016/0013-4694(93)90175-u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated electroencephalograms (EEGs) in 10 boys with Menkes disease, ranging in age from 9 days to 27 months. Three of 10 tracings were normal (the newborn, his 27-month-old half-brother with the classic phenotype, and a 27-month-old mildly affected patient). Plasma copper levels were low in all patients except the newborn and tended to be lowest in patients whose EEGs were moderately or severely abnormal. EEG differences in Menkes patients could reflect biochemical and molecular heterogeneity with respect to copper availability and utilization in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- S R White
- EEG Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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20
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Horn N, Tønnesen T, Tümer Z. Menkes disease: an X-linked neurological disorder of the copper metabolism. Brain Pathol 1992; 2:351-62. [PMID: 1341968 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.1992.tb00711.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Menkes disease is an X-linked, recessive disturbance of copper metabolism associated with a progressive clinical course and abnormal hair. The disease is dominated by neurological symptoms combined with connective tissue manifestations, most of which can be explained by the lack of important copper enzymes. Despite excessive accumulation of the metal in various tissues, a functional copper deficiency is evident, probably caused by a defective intracellular copper transport protein of unknown nature. The molecular basis of the copper disturbance has proven difficult to define and will most likely have to await cloning of the gene. The chromosomal region of interest has now been narrowed down to a sub-band on the long arm of the chromosome (Xq13.3), and positional cloning is in progress in a number of laboratories including our own. Identification of the Menkes gene will be of importance for our understanding of the cellular handling of copper and other trace elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Horn
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, John F. Kennedy Institute, Glostrup, Denmark
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21
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Reed UC, Rosemberg S, Diament AJ, Scaff M, Canelas HM, Lefèvre AB. [Menkes syndrome: review of the pathogenesis apropos of a clinico-pathological case]. ARQUIVOS DE NEURO-PSIQUIATRIA 1984; 42:262-73. [PMID: 6497717 DOI: 10.1590/s0004-282x1984000300010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The authors report a case of Menkes' syndrome, probably the first one described in Brazil. The patient, a 15-month-old boy, showed pili torti, early progressive psychomotor deterioration and seizures. Serum levels of ceruloplasmin and copper were very low. Neuroradiological and roentgenological examinations revealed diffuse cerebral atrophy, arterial changes and bone abnormalities. At the post-mortem examination the more consistent findings were cerebral atrophy, neuronal loss in the thalamus and above all cerebellar cortical lesions. The disease has a sex-linked recessive inheritance and is believed to be caused by an inborn error of copper metabolism, perhaps subordinated to changes of proteins which carry copper to different tissues. The relevant literature in relation to the pathogenesis is reviewed.
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Abstract
Menkes's syndrome (trichopoliodystrophy) is an x-linked, recessive genodermatosis characterized by hair defects, severe retardation, convulsions, progressive neurologic deterioration, and early death. Recent studies in copper metabolism suggest that Menkes's syndrome may be a storage disease in which copper is irreversibly trapped in some tissues by metallothionein, a heavy-metal-binding protein. This then gives rise to a deficiency elsewhere, particularly in the brain, causing irreversible damage in the fetus. We present a patient with Menkes's syndrome and review the clinical and metabolic aspects of this disease.
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23
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Abstract
Menkes' syndrome is an X-linked recessive multisystem disease which is usually fatal prior to 5 years of age. Though originally felt to be a disorder of copper deficiency, it now appears to be a copper storage disease, with the observed defects resulting from inappropriate systemic copper distribution. Disorders in the metabolism of metallothionein, a metalloprotein involved in cellular copper transport, may be the primary defect in this syndrome. This review summarizes the relevant clinical and pathologic findings seen in this condition to date. It also describes some of the abnormalities in the metabolism of copper and metallothionein in these infants.
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