Notes on tetanus (lockjaw)

Major pathogenic Clostridia in human and progress toward the clostridial vaccines

The Clostridium genus is composed of a large spectrum of heterogeneous bacteria. They are Gram-positive, mostly mesophilic, and anaerobic spore-forming strains. Clostridia are widely distributed in oxygen-free habitats. They are found principally in the soil and intestines of ruminants as normal flora, but also are the cause of several infections in humans. The infections produced by important species in humans include botulism, tetanus, pseudomembranous colitis, antibiotics-associated diarrhea, and gas gangrene. Immunization with toxoid or bacterin-toxoid or genetically modified or other vaccines is a protective way against clostridial infection. Several experimental or commercial vaccines have been developed worldwide. Although conventional vaccines including toxoid vaccines are very important, the new generation of vaccines is an effective alternative to conventional vaccines. Recent advances have made it possible for new vaccines to increase immunogenicity. This review discusses briefly the important species of clostridia in humans, their toxins structure, and vaccine development and usage throughout the world.

Vaccine Production to Protect Animals Against Pathogenic Clostridia

Clostridium is a broad genus of anaerobic, spore-forming, rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacteria that can be found in different environments all around the world. The genus includes human and animal pathogens that produce potent exotoxins that cause rapid and potentially fatal diseases responsible for countless human casualties and billion-dollar annual loss to the agricultural sector. Diseases include botulism, tetanus, enterotoxemia, gas gangrene, necrotic enteritis, pseudomembranous colitis, blackleg, and black disease, which are caused by pathogenic Clostridium. Due to their ability to sporulate, they cannot be eradicated from the environment. As such, immunization with toxoid or bacterin-toxoid vaccines is the only protective method against infection. Toxins recovered from Clostridium cultures are inactivated to form toxoids, which are then formulated into multivalent vaccines. This review discusses the toxins, diseases, and toxoid production processes of the most common pathogenic Clostridium species, including Clostridiumbotulinum, Clostridiumtetani, Clostridiumperfringens, Clostridiumchauvoei, Clostridiumsepticum, Clostridiumnovyi and Clostridiumhemolyticum.

Decreased beta-phenylethylamine in CSF in Parkinson's disease

OBJECTIVE

To determine the concentrations of beta-phenylethylamine (PEA) in CSF in patients with Parkinson's disease, and to evaluate the relation between concentration of PEA in CSF and severity of Parkinson's disease.

METHODS

Using gas chromatography-chemical ionisation mass spectrometry, CSF concentrations of PEA were measured in 23 patients with Parkinson's disease (mean age, 64.0 (SD 8.2) years), of whom three were at Hoehn and Yahr stage II, 11 were at stage III, and nine were at stage IV. Comparison was made with eight patients with neuropathy (mean age, 57.0 (SD 19.2) years) and 12 controls without neurological disease (mean age, 57.6 (SD 4.8) years).

RESULTS

Concentrations of PEA in CSF in Parkinson's disease were significantly lower (mean 205 (SD 131) pg/ml) than in patients with peripheral neuropathy (433 (SD 254) pg/ml) and controls (387 (SD 194) pg/ml). The concentrations of PEA in CSF correlated negatively with Hoehn and Yahr stage (P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

There are decreased CSF concentrations of PEA in patients with Parkinson's disease.