Conn's syndrome

What Did We Learn from the Molecular Biology of Adrenal Cortical Neoplasia? From Histopathology to Translational Genomics

Approximately one-tenth of the general population exhibit adrenal cortical nodules, and the incidence has increased. Afflicted patients display a multifaceted symptomatology-sometimes with rather spectacular features. Given the general infrequency as well as the specific clinical, histological, and molecular considerations characterizing these lesions, adrenal cortical tumors should be investigated by endocrine pathologists in high-volume tertiary centers. Even so, to distinguish specific forms of benign adrenal cortical lesions as well as to pinpoint malignant cases with the highest risk of poor outcome is often challenging using conventional histology alone, and molecular genetics and translational biomarkers are therefore gaining increased attention as a possible discriminator in this context. In general, our understanding of adrenal cortical tumorigenesis has increased tremendously the last decade, not least due to the development of next-generation sequencing techniques. Comprehensive analyses have helped establish the link between benign aldosterone-producing adrenal cortical proliferations and ion channel mutations, as well as mutations in the protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway coupled to cortisol-producing adrenal cortical lesions. Moreover, molecular classifications of adrenal cortical tumors have facilitated the distinction of benign from malignant forms, as well as the prognostication of the individual patients with verified adrenal cortical carcinoma, enabling high-resolution diagnostics that is not entirely possible by histology alone. Therefore, combinations of histology, immunohistochemistry, and next-generation multi-omic analyses are all needed in an integrated fashion to properly distinguish malignancy in some cases. Despite significant progress made in the field, current clinical and pathological challenges include the preoperative distinction of non-metastatic low-grade adrenal cortical carcinoma confined to the adrenal gland, adoption of individualized therapeutic algorithms aligned with molecular and histopathologic risk stratification tools, and histological confirmation of functional adrenal cortical disease in the context of multifocal adrenal cortical proliferations. We herein review the histological, genetic, and epigenetic landscapes of benign and malignant adrenal cortical neoplasia from a modern surgical endocrine pathology perspective and highlight key mechanisms of value for diagnostic and prognostic purposes.

Timeline of Advances in Genetics of Primary Aldosteronism

The overwhelming majority of cases of primary aldosteronism (PA) occur sporadically due to a unilateral aldosterone-producing adenoma (APA) or bilateral idiopathic adrenal hyperplasia. Familial forms of PA are rare with four subtypes defined to date (familial hyperaldosteronism types I-IV). The molecular basis of familial hyperaldosteronism type I (FH type I or glucocorticoid-remediable aldosteronism) was established in 1992; two decades later the genetic variant causing FH type III was identified and germline mutations causing FH type IV and FH type II were determined soon after. Effective diagnostic protocols and methods to detect the overactive gland in unilateral PA by adrenal venous sampling followed by laparoscopic adrenalectomy have made available APAs for scientific studies. In rapid succession, following the widespread use of next-generation sequencing, recurrent somatic driver mutations in APAs were identified in genes encoding ion channels and transporters. The development of highly specific monoclonal antibodies against key enzymes in adrenal steroidogenesis has unveiled the heterogeneous features of the diseased adrenal in PA and helped reveal the high proportion of APAs with driver mutations. We discuss what is known about the genetics of PA that has led to a clearer understanding of the disease pathophysiology.

Study of awareness of adrenal disorders among interns and postgraduate students of Hamidia Hospital, Bhopal

INTRODUCTION

Adrenal disorders could be a life-threatening emergency, hence requires immediate therapeutic management. For this awareness regarding its diagnosis, management, and treatment is prime important.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE

To study the awareness of adrenal disorders among interns and postgraduates students of Hamidia Hospital, Bhopal.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional questionnaire-based study was performed. Fifty-six participants, i.e., 1^st, 2^nd, and 3^rd years postgraduate residents of general medicine (n = 14 × 3) and interns (n = 14) were included in the study. There were 12 questions on adrenal insufficiency, adrenal adenoma, congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), nonclassical CAH (NCCAH), pheochromocytoma, and Conn's syndrome. One mark was awarded for each correct response.

RESULTS

In the present study, 14 (25%) participants scored < 5 marks, 33 (58.9%) scored between 6 and 9, and 9 (16.1%) scored between 10 and 12. The mean score among the participants was 6.38 ± 2.505, with a range from 2 to 11 marks. The number of correct answers by postgraduates residents of 1^st year was 101, 2^nd year was 95, and 3^rd year was 93 and interns scored 68 out of total 168 questions in each group. Mean awareness score for residents of 1^st, 2^nd, 3^rd years participants and interns was 7.21 ± 2.806, 6.79 ± 2.119, and 6.64 ± 2.818 and 6.63 ± 2.505, respectively. Most of the participants recorded correct responses related to diagnosis (57.7%) followed by responses related to treatment (64.3%). Answers to a question regarding how commonly is adrenal insufficiency diagnosed in medical Intensive Care Unit, none of the individuals responded correctly.

CONCLUSION

There was a lack of awareness regarding diagnosis, management, and treatment of adrenal disorders in central India. We need to prioritize training related to these illnesses in our postgraduate teaching curriculum in practice.