Inclusion of detergent in a cleaning regime and effect on microbial load in livestock housing

Evaluation of ATP bioluminescence for rapid determination of farrowing room cleanliness after pressure washing at a commercial sow farm

Rotavirus and other pathogenic microorganisms are known to cause scours, respiratory infection, and increased mortality, spread from pig to pig via contaminated equipment, insuffcient washing, and improper disinfection processes in farrowing rooms on commercial sow farms. Pig producers have adopted cleaning procedures and biosecurity policies as an attempt to ensure farrowing rooms are free of infectious organisms before the next group of sows is introduced. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) bioluminescence has been used in other industries to provide real-time feedback on surface cleanliness through the detection of ATP from organic sources. That technology may provide producers a way of objectively characterizing a farrowing room's suitability for a new group of sows to be moved into the farrowing room. Three ATP luminometers (Charm Sciences novaLUM II-X, 3M Clean Trace, and Neogen AccuPoint) were used to estimate relationships between ATP bioluminescence relative light units (RLU) and coliform plate counts (CPC). Five farrowing crate locations and the room entryway floor were swabbed to determine locations within a farrowing crate that can accurately estimate room cleanliness. Coliform plate counts were strongly correlated with Charm novaLUM II-X RLU (r = 0.70, P < 0.01). The Clean-Trace CPCs and RLU (r = 0.48, P < 0.01) were moderately correlated. There was a weak correlation between CPCs and AccuPoint RLU (r = 0.32, P < 0.01). The greatest area of surface contamination was the entryway floor and the sow feeder. Because CPCs and luminometer RLU were correlated, statistical process control charts were developed to provide cleanliness thresholds based on RLU values. Based on an adjusted 3σ from the mean RLU critical limit, 7.7% of crates for the Charm novaLUM II-X, 10.6% of crates for the 3M Clean Trace, and 0% of crates for the Neogen AccuPoint would have failed the critical limit for the sow feeder cleanliness thresholds. Using a similar approach, 11.4% of crates for the Charm novaLUM II-X, 10.5% of crates for the 3M Clean Trace, and 15.2% of crates for the Neogen AccuPoint would have failed the critical limit for the crate sorting bar cleanliness thresholds. These data suggest that ATP bioluminescence may be a reliable method to monitor cleaning effectiveness in farrowing rooms on commercial sow farms. Bioluminescence is a monitoring tool that should be used in conjunction with periodic microbial validation to monitor procedures for cleaning and disinfection.

Effect of implementing an effective farrowing accommodation hygiene routine on clinical cases of disease, medication usage, and growth in suckling and weaned pigs

The few studies that have evaluated hygiene routines in farrowing accommodation to date have focused on pathogen elimination from pens, with little attention paid to pig growth and no information provided on pig health or medication usage. This study aimed to determine if implementation of an optimized farrowing accommodation hygiene routine could improve pig health and growth and reduce medication usage pre- and post-weaning (PW). Forty seven sows were blocked on parity, previous litter size and body weight and assigned to two treatments: T1) Basic hygiene: cold water washing only with minimal drying time; T2) Optimized hygiene: use of detergent and a chlorocresol-based disinfectant with a 6-d drying time. Total bacterial counts (TBC), Enterobacteriaceae counts and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) swabs were obtained from different areas within the farrowing pens. Pig growth and medication usage were monitored from birth to slaughter and carcass data were obtained at slaughter. On entry of sows to the farrowing pens, TBC and Enterobacteriaceae counts and ATP concentrations were lower on pen surfaces subjected to the optimized compared to the basic hygiene routine (P < 0.05). Pre-weaning diarrhea prevalence was lower in pigs born into optimal compared to basic hygiene pens (0 vs. 22%; P < 0.001). The number of clinical cases of disease and injections administered to piglets per litter was 75% and 79% less for the optimized compared to the basic hygiene routine, respectively (P < 0.001). This led to reductions of 77% (P < 0.001) and 75% (P < 0.01), respectively in the volume of antibiotics and anti-inflammatories administered per litter in the optimized hygiene group. Pigs from the optimized hygiene treatment were also heavier at weaning (P < 0.01) and their average daily gain (ADG) was higher from day 21 to weaning and days 22 to 49 PW (P < 0.05). However, these growth improvements did not carry through to the finisher period. In conclusion, implementation of an optimized hygiene routine reduced the bacterial load in farrowing pens, leading to a reduction in diarrhea and clinical cases of disease and therefore, medication usage, in suckling pigs. Pig growth was also improved during the suckling and early PW periods. Based on the results, an easily implementable farrowing room hygiene protocol with demonstrable benefits for pig health, growth, and welfare can be provided to farmers.

Improvements of weaned pigs barn hygiene to reduce the spread of antimicrobial resistance

The spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in animal husbandry is usually attributed to the use of antibiotics and poor hygiene and biosecurity. We therefore conducted experimental trials to improve hygiene management in weaned pig houses and assessed the impact on the spread. For each of the two groups examined, the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG), three replicate batches of piglets from the same pig breeder, kept in pre-cleaned flat decks, were analyzed. In the flat decks of the experimental groups, the hygiene conditions (cleaning, disinfection, dust removal and fly control) were improved, while regular hygiene measures were carried out in the control groups. The occurrence and spread of AMR were determined in Escherichia coli (E. coli; resistance indicator) using cultivation-dependent (CFU) and -independent (qPCR) methods as well as whole genome sequencing of isolates in samples of various origins, including feces, flies, feed, dust and swabs. Surprisingly, there were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the prevalence of resistant E. coli between the flat decks managed with conventional techniques and those managed with improved techniques. Selective cultivation delivered ampicillin- and sulfonamide-resistant E. coli proportions of up to 100% and 1.2%, respectively. While 0.5% E. coli resistant to cefotaxime and no ciprofloxacin resistance were detected. There was a significant difference (p < 0.01) in the abundance of the blaTEM-1 gene in fecal samples between EG and CG groups. The colonization of piglets with resistant pathogens before arrival, the movement of flies in the barn and the treatment of bacterial infections with antibiotics obscured the effects of hygiene improvement. Biocide tolerance tests showed no development of resistance to the farm regular disinfectant. Managing hygiene alone was insufficient for reducing antimicrobial resistances in piglet rearing. We conclude that the complex factors contributing to the presence and distribution of AMR in piglet barns underscore the necessity for a comprehensive management strategy.

Survival of highly related ESBL- and pAmpC- producing Escherichia coli in broiler farms identified before and after cleaning and disinfection using cgMLST

BACKGROUND

Broiler chickens are frequently colonized with Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase- (ESBL-) and plasmid mediated AmpC Beta-Lactamase- (pAmpC-) producing Enterobacterales, and we are confronted with the potential spread of these resistant bacteria in the food chain, in the environment, and to humans. Research focused on identifying of transmission routes and investigating potential intervention measures against ESBL- and pAmpC- producing bacteria in the broiler production chain. However, few data are available on the effects of cleaning and disinfection (C&D) procedures in broiler stables on ESBL- and pAmpC- producing bacteria.

RESULTS

We systematically investigated five broiler stables before and after C&D and identified potential ESBL- and pAmpC- colonization sites after C&D in the broiler stables, including the anteroom and the nearby surrounding environment of the broiler stables. Phenotypically resistant E. coli isolates grown on MacConkey agar with cefotaxime were further analyzed for their beta-lactam resistance genes and phylogenetic groups, as well as the relation of isolates from the investigated stables before and after C&D by whole genome sequencing. Survival of ESBL- and pAmpC- producing E. coli is highly likely at sites where C&D was not performed or where insufficient cleaning was performed prior to disinfection. For the first time, we showed highly related ESBL-/pAmpC- producing E. coli isolates detected before and after C&D in four of five broiler stables examined with cgMLST. Survival of resistant isolates in investigated broiler stables as well as transmission of resistant isolates from broiler stables to the anteroom and surrounding environment and between broiler farms was shown. In addition, enterococci (frequently utilized to detect fecal contamination and for C&D control) can be used as an indicator bacterium for the detection of ESBL-/pAmpC- E. coli after C&D.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that C&D can reduce ESBL-/pAmpC- producing E. coli in conventional broiler stables, but complete ESBL- and pAmpC- elimination does not seem to be possible in practice as several factors influence the C&D outcome (e.g. broiler stable condition, ESBL-/pAmpC- status prior to C&D, C&D procedures used, and biosecurity measures on the farm). A multifactorial approach, combining various hygiene- and management measures, is needed to reduce ESBL-/pAmpC- E. coli in broiler farms.

The Detection of Salmonella Enteritidis on German Layer Farms after Cleaning and Disinfection

The presence of Salmonella Enteritidis in poultry houses after cleaning and disinfection can pose a potential risk to public health, as Salmonella remains one of the most important causes of foodborne diseases. This study focused on ten German layer farms (including floor-reared and free-range systems) with a recent history of Salmonella Enteritidis, and samples were collected from July 2018 to March 2021 after the cleaning and disinfection process. A total of 244 swab samples were tested for the presence of Salmonella using real-time PCR, followed by a culture of positive samples. Results revealed that 61 out of the 244 swab samples tested positive for Salmonella, indicating a prevalence of 25% in the samples examined. Among the Salmonella-positive swab samples identified with the PCR assay, 65.6% (40 out of 61) were confirmed by the culture. Of the 40 isolates obtained from the culture, 36 were identified as Salmonella Enteritidis, while 4 were categorized as rough Salmonella strains. This study emphasizes the importance of both the surrounding area of the poultry houses in terms of infection carry-over and the meticulous implementation of cleaning and disinfection procedures to eliminate any remaining infection within the houses. To mitigate the risk of further Salmonella spread on layer farms, additional investigations are recommended to focus on the existing transmission pathways of Salmonella and their genetic diversity.

Biosecurity and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions in animal agricultural settings for reducing infection burden, antibiotic use, and antibiotic resistance: a One Health systematic review

Prevention and control of infections across the One Health spectrum is essential for improving antibiotic use and addressing the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance. Evidence for how best to manage these risks in agricultural communities-45% of households globally-has not been systematically assembled. This systematic review identifies and summarises evidence from on-farm biosecurity and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions with the potential to directly or indirectly reduce infections and antibiotic resistance in animal agricultural settings. We searched 17 scientific databases (including Web of Science, PubMed, and regional databases) and grey literature from database inception to Dec 31, 2019 for articles that assessed biosecurity or WASH interventions measuring our outcomes of interest; namely, infection burden, microbial loads, antibiotic use, and antibiotic resistance in animals, humans, or the environment. Risk of bias was assessed with the Systematic Review Centre for Laboratory Animal Experimentation tool, Risk of Bias in Non-Randomized Studies of Interventions, and the Appraisal tool for Cross-Sectional Studies, although no studies were excluded as a result. Due to the heterogeneity of interventions found, we conducted a narrative synthesis. The protocol was pre-registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020162345). Of the 20 672 publications screened, 104 were included in this systematic review. 64 studies were conducted in high-income countries, 24 studies in upper-middle-income countries, 13 studies in lower-middle-income countries, two in low-income countries, and one included both upper-middle-income countries and lower-middle-income countries. 48 interventions focused on livestock (mainly pigs), 43 poultry (mainly chickens), one on livestock and poultry, and 12 on aquaculture farms. 68 of 104 interventions took place on intensive farms, 22 in experimental settings, and ten in smallholder or subsistence farms. Positive outcomes were reported for ten of 23 water studies, 17 of 35 hygiene studies, 15 of 24 sanitation studies, all three air-quality studies, and 11 of 17 other biosecurity-related interventions. In total, 18 of 26 studies reported reduced infection or diseases, 37 of 71 studies reported reduced microbial loads, four of five studies reported reduced antibiotic use, and seven of 20 studies reported reduced antibiotic resistance. Overall, risk of bias was high in 28 of 57 studies with positive interventions and 17 of 30 studies with negative or neutral interventions. Farm-management interventions successfully reduced antibiotic use by up to 57%. Manure-oriented interventions reduced antibiotic resistance genes or antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animal waste by up to 99%. This systematic review highlights the challenges of preventing and controlling infections and antimicrobial resistance, even in well resourced agricultural settings. Most of the evidence emerges from studies that focus on the farm itself, rather than targeting agricultural communities or the broader social, economic, and policy environment that could affect their outcomes. WASH and biosecurity interventions could complement each other when addressing antimicrobial resistance in the human, animal, and environmental interface.

Biosecurity and Hygiene Procedures in Pig Farms: Effects of a Tailor-Made Approach as Monitored by Environmental Samples

In livestock, the importance of hygiene management is gaining importance within the context of biosecurity. The aim of this study was to monitor the implementation of biosecurity and hygiene procedures in 20 swine herds over a 12-month period, as driven by tailor-made plans, including training on-farm. The measure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) environmental contents was used as an output biomarker. The presence of livestock-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (LA-MRSA) and extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing Escherichia coli (ESBL-E. coli) was also investigated as sentinels of antibiotic resistance. A significant biosecurity improvement (p = 0.006) and a reduction in the ATP content in the sanitised environment (p = 0.039) were observed. A cluster including 6/20 farms greatly improved both biosecurity and ATP contents, while the remaining 14/20 farms ameliorated them only slightly. Even if the ESBL-E. coli prevalence (30.0%) after the hygiene procedures significantly decreased, the prevalence of LA-MRSA (22.5%) was unaffected. Despite the promising results supporting the adoption of tailor-made biosecurity plans and the measure of environmental ATP as an output biomarker, the high LA-MRSA prevalence still detected at the end of the study underlines the importance of improving even more biosecurity and farm hygiene in a one-health approach aimed to preserve also the pig workers health.

Pre-Weaned Calf Rearing on Northern Irish Dairy Farms-Part 2: The Impact of Hygiene Practice on Bacterial Levels in Dairy Calf Rearing Environments

Pre-weaned dairy calves are very susceptible to disease in the first months of life due to having a naïve immune system and because of the numerous physiological stressors they face. Hygiene management is a key element in minimizing enteric disease risk in calves by reducing their exposure to pathogens. Samples of milk, concentrate feed and drinking water, boot swabs of bedding and swabs of feed equipment were collected from 66 dairy farms as part of a survey of calf rearing practice and housing design. All the samples were cultured to determine total viable counts (TVC), total coliforms (TCC) and Escherichia coli as indicators of hygiene. Target ranges for levels of TVC, TCC and E. coli were defined from the literature and the sample results compared against them. The TVC targets in milk, MR and water were <4.0 log₁₀ CFU/mL. TCC and E. coli targets of <1.1 log₁₀ CFU/mL (the detection limit) were used for milk, MR, concentrate feed and feeding equipment. For water, the TCC and E. coli targets were <1.0 log₁₀ CFU/100 mL. The targets used for bedding boot swabs were <6.3 log₁₀ TVC CFU/mL and <5.7 log₁₀ TCC or E. coli CFU/mL. Farm management factors were included as fixed effects in a generalized linear mixed model to determine the probability of samples being within each hygiene indicator target range. Milk replacer samples obtained from automatic feeders were more likely to be within the TVC target range (0.63 probability) than those prepared manually (0.34) or milk samples taken from the bulk tank (0.23). Concentrate feed samples taken from buckets in single-calf pens were more likely to have E. coli detected (0.89) than samples taken from group pen troughs (0.97). A very small proportion of water samples were within the indicator targets (TVC 9.8%, TCC 6.0%, E. coli 10.2%). Water from self-fill drinkers had a lower likelihood of being within the TVC target (0.03) than manually filled buckets (0.14), and water samples from single pens were more likely to be within TCC target ranges (0.12) than those from group pens (0.03). However, all self-fill drinkers were located in group pens so these results are likely confounded. Where milk feeders were cleaned after every feed, there was a greater likelihood of being within the TVC target range (0.47, compared with 0.23 when not cleaned after every feed). Detection of coliforms in milk replacer mixing utensils was linked with reduced probability of TVC (0.17, compared with 0.43 when coliforms were not detected) and TCC (0.38, compared with 0.62), which was within target in feeders. Key factors related to increased probability of bedding samples being within TCC target range were use of group calf pens (0.96) rather than single-calf pens (0.80), use of solid floors (0.96, compared with 0.76 for permeable floors) and increased space allowance of calves (0.94 for pens with ≥2 m²/calf, compared with 0.79 for pens with <2 m²/calf). Bedding TVC was more likely to be within the target range in group (0.84) rather than in single pens (0.66). The results show that hygiene levels in the calf rearing environment vary across farms and that management and housing design impact hygiene.

Galacto-oligosaccharides fed during gestation increase Rotavirus A specific antibodies in sow colostrum, modulate the microbiome, and reduce infectivity in neonatal piglets in a commercial farm setting

Introduction

Rotavirus A is a major cause of acute dehydrating diarrhea in neonatal pigs resulting in significant mortality, morbidity, reduced performance and economic loss. Commercially available prebiotic galacto-oligosaccharides are similar to those of mammalian milk and stimulate the development of the microbiota and immune system in neonates. Little is known about the effects of supplementing sows' diets with galacto-oligosaccharides during gestation. This study aimed to determine if dietary galacto-oligosaccharide supplementation during gestation could improve immunity, reduce rotavirus infection and modulate the microbiota in sows and neonates in a commercial farm setting with confirmed natural endemic rotavirus challenge.

Methods

In a randomized controlled trial, control sows received lactation diet with no galacto-oligosaccharide supplementation and test sows received lactation diet with 30 g/day galacto-oligosaccharide top-dressed into feed daily, seven days before farrowing. Colostrum was collected from sows 24 hours post-partum and tested for rotavirus specific antibodies. Fecal samples were collected from sows and piglets three days post-partum, tested for rotavirus A by qPCR and the microbiome composition assessed by 16s rRNA gene sequencing.

Results

Supplementation with galacto-oligosaccharides during gestation significantly increased rotavirus-specific IgG and IgA in sow colostrum and reduced the number of rotavirus positive piglet fecal samples. Abundance of potential pathogens Treponema and Clostridiales were higher in fecal samples from non-galacto-oligosaccharide fed sows, their piglets and rotavirus positive samples.

Discussion

This study demonstrates that galacto-oligosaccharide supplementation during gestation significantly increases rotavirus specific IgG and IgA in sow colostrum thereby reducing neonatal rotavirus infection and suppresses potential pathogenic bacteria in nursing sows and neonatal piglets.

Improving adsorption effect of modified carbon felt on microorganisms in pig houses

The pathogenic microorganisms in the air have a significant impact on piglet growth and even biosecurity of pig industry. Carbon felt-based microbial adsorption shows great potential in reducing the misuse of chemical disinfectants in pig houses. However, poor biocompatibility and low adsorption efficiency hinder the application of carbon felt for microbial control in animal husbandry. Herein, modified carbon felt was prepared with strong acid to improve its surface properties and internal structure. The hydrophilic and large specific surface area of modified sample offered high adsorption activity for bacteria adhered on biotic/abiotic interface. Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, X-ray diffraction, pore specific surface area analysis, and scanning electron microscopy were used to analyze the chemical functional groups and microporous structure of the modified carbon felt. Antibacterial tests were performed using the model bacteria Escherichia coli. Acid treatment converts the hydrophobicity of carbon felt to hydrophilicity, increasing adsorption capacity and promoting a disinfection rate of up to 97.3%. This study can enhance bioaffinity and adsorption selectivity of carbon felt to Escherichia coli, bringing its antibacterial activity and application prospects closer to industrialization.

Factors associated with antimicrobial use in pig and veal calf farms in the Netherlands: A multi-method longitudinal data analysis

Minimizing antimicrobial use (AMU) in livestock is needed to control antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In the Netherlands, the livestock sector reduced AMU by almost 70 % since 2009, but this reduction stagnated in recent years. With only therapeutic AMU allowed, it is clear that besides socio-economic and behavioral factors, also the farm technical characteristics influence the conditions under which farmers need AMU. These characteristics pertain to farm management, including biosecurity, vaccination schemes, nutrition, micro-climate and husbandry practices. Identifying farm-related risk factors for AMU is needed to control AMR in a sustainable and pragmatic way. This need, often concerns the overall contribution of seemingly related (rather than individualized) factors. Here, risk factors for AMU in pig and calf farms were determined using two approaches: a typical risk factor analysis based on generalized estimating equations (GEEs) or hierarchical mixed-effects models and a multiblock partial least-squares regression analysis. These methods were applied to longitudinal data from two previous studies, i.e. a panel study and an intervention study involving 36 multiplier pig farms and 51 veal calf farms in the Netherlands, respectively. The multiblock analysis allowed us to quantify the importance of each factor and their respective block (i.e. farm management domain). For pigs, factors related to internal biosecurity had the highest impact on AMU, while for calves, these were mainly related to micro-climate. Structural characteristics, such as farm size and production type, followed in importance for both sectors. While both methods provided similar outcomes, the multiblock approach provided further insights by grouping and comparing factors believed to be inter-related.

Disinfectant testing for veterinary and agricultural applications: A review

Disinfectants for veterinary and livestock use, plus skin antiseptics, are critical elements for the control of infectious agents, including zoonotic and antimicrobial-resistant micro-organisms, in managed animal species. Such agents impact animal welfare, economic performance and human health. Testing of disinfectants is needed for safety, efficacy and quality control. The present review examines the principal types of test (carrier, suspension, surface and field) that have been developed or attempted, plus the features inherent in the respective tests, particularly with respect to variability. Elements of testing that have to be controlled, or which can be manipulated, are discussed in the context of real-world scenarios and anticipated applications. Current national and international testing regimes are considered, with an emphasis on the UK, continental Europe and North America, and with further detail provided in the Supporting Information. Challenges to disinfectant efficacy include: the nature of the biological targets (bacteria, fungi, yeasts, spores, viruses and prions), the need for economical and safe working concentrations, the physical and chemical nature of contaminated surfaces, constraints on contact times and temperatures, the presence of organic soil and other barrier or neutralising substances (including biofilms), and thoroughness of pre-cleaning and disinfectant application. The principal challenges with veterinary disinfectant testing are the control of test variability, and relating test results to likely performance in variable field conditions. Despite some ambitions to develop standardised field tests for disinfectants, aside from skin antiseptic trials the myriad problems such tests pose with respect to cost, reproducibility and generalisability remain intractable.

Pilot Study on Alteration of LA-MRSA Status of Pigs during Fattening Period on Straw Bedding by Two Types of Cleaning

In countries with professional pig husbandry in stables, the prevalence of livestock-associated (LA) methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) on farms has remained high or has further increased in recent years. Simple measures to reduce LA-MRSA among pigs have not yet been successfully implemented. The aim of this pilot study is twofold: first, to examine how the LA-MRSA status of LA-MRSA positive fattening pigs at the date of housing changes over the fatting period on straw bedding and, second, whether this change could be influenced by the quality of cleaning and disinfection (C&D). For this purpose, 122 animals are individually tested for LA-MRSA carriage at five sequential time points comparing pigs housed on a farm using straw bedding plus C&D (n = 59) vs. straw bedding plus simple cleaning (n = 63). At the time of housing, all animals in both groups are LA-MRSA positive. This status changes to 0% in the group with simple cleaning until the end of fattening and 28% in the C&D group. LA-MRSA in environmental and air samples is also reduced over the fattening period. The results indicate that keeping pigs on straw might be one way to reduce LA-MRSA during the fattening period with simple cleaning appearing to be more beneficial than C&D. Further investigations are necessary to determine the influencing factors more precisely.

Implementation of management recommendations in unweaned dairy calves in western Germany and associated challenges

To improve the welfare of livestock, it is important to assess management practices on farms and to identify areas where current scientific recommendations are rarely implemented. Differences in the implementation of recommendations might be explained by the individual farm as well as the characteristics of survey respondents and their attitude toward animal welfare. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess dairy calf management practices, compare them with current scientific recommendations, and to explore factors that influence implementation of the recommended management practices. A 1.5-h interview was performed with stockpersons on 42 dairy farms (mean herd size ± SD = 149.9 ± 16.6 cows) distributed across western Germany in 2018 to 2019. We observed that the management of unweaned calves varied greatly from farm to farm in aspects such as milk-feeding protocols; timing of grouping and disbudding; and access to water, roughage, and concentrate. Major deviations from management recommendations were (1) cleaning calving pen only by removal of bedding without a following disinfection before restocking on 23.8% farms, cleaning of teat buckets without detergents and disinfection (23.8 and 11.9% of farms, respectively), and failure to disinfect navels (29.3% of farms); (2) separating calf and dam after only 5 to 8 h postpartum for calving at night in 97.6% farms and unchecked colostrum quality by 23.8% of survey respondents; (3) feeding waste milk by 72.4% of the farms surveyed; and (4) removing supernumerary teats and disbudding without local anesthesia (90 and 80% farms surveyed, respectively). The number of implemented recommendations on the farms surveyed correlated with who was responsible for calf rearing, and whether prioritizing animal welfare was considered important by the respondents. This study indicated that limitations of individual housing systems, time management, the stockperson's knowledge, and the stockperson's ability to relate to animals posed challenges in implementation of the recommendations. Further research on challenges in calf management and how to overcome them would be helpful to improve calves' welfare in current husbandry systems.

Hygiene management in newborn individually housed dairy calves focusing on housing and feeding practices

In calf rearing, the first weeks of life are critical and associated with the highest mortality due to enteric and respiratory diseases. A well-implemented hygiene management can help to protect calves' health preventively by reducing the load of pathogenic bacteria and interrupting infection chains. The aim of this study was to identify deficiencies in hygiene management of individually housed dairy calves by surveying current practice and examining feeding and housing equipment with different hygiene indicators. On 11 farms, different locations in 2 pens or hutches for individual calf rearing prepared for restocking and 2 feeding buckets per farm, including the inner and outer surfaces of artificial teats, were visually scored for cleanliness and sampled with swabs (housing equipment: n = 167; feeding equipment: n = 120). The sanitation of floors was tested with sock samples (n = 41). A total of 328 samples were analyzed for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and protein residues, aerobic total viable count (TVC), total coliform count (TCC), Escherichia coli, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing bacteria (ESBL), and Salmonella spp. After evaluation of these results, the farmers were informed about the findings and trained on improvement in hygiene management personally. The sampling was repeated after 1 year to detect possible changes in hygiene management. The highest bacterial loads (TVC, TCC, and E. coli) were observed in feeding equipment, especially the inner teat of milk feeding buckets. Environmental samples, primarily the sidewalls and back walls of tested pens and hutches, exhibited the lowest bacterial counts and ATP and protein residues. All samples were negative for MRSA and Salmonella spp. In 10.5% of all samples, ESBL was detected, and in 6.8%, ESBL E. coli was detected, predominately in sock samples, followed by feeding equipment samples. Training in hygiene management showed only limited effects. In conclusion, there is still great potential to improve the implementation of hygiene measures in individual calf housing. In particular, more attention should be paid to the cleaning of feeding buckets and artificial teats, as this is a simple means of interrupting the possible spread of pathogens among calves.

Effect of different cleaning procedures on water use and bacterial levels in weaner pig pens

Pork is one of the most globally eaten meats and the pig production chain contributes significantly to the water footprint of livestock production. However, very little knowledge is available about the on-farm factors that influence freshwater use in the pig production chain. An experiment was conducted to quantify the effect of three different washing treatments on freshwater use, bacterial levels [(total bacterial counts; TBC), Enterobacteriaceae and Staphylococcus] and cleaning time in washing of pens for weaning pigs. Three weaner rooms were selected with each room having 10 pens and a capacity to hold up to 14 pigs each. Pigs were weaned and kept in the pens for 7 weeks. Finally, the pens were cleaned before the next batch of pigs moved in. The washing treatments used were power washing and disinfection (WASH); presoaking followed by power washing and disinfection (SOAK), and presoaking followed by detergent, power washing and disinfection (SOAK + DETER). A water meter was used to collect water use data and swab samples were taken to determine the bacterial levels. The results showed that there was no overall effect of washing treatments on water use. However, there was an effect of treatment on the washing time (p<0.01) with SOAK and SOAK+DETER reducing the washing time per pen by 2.3 minutes (14%) and 4.2 minutes (27%) compared to WASH. Nonetheless, there was an effect of sampling time (before or after washing) (p<0.001) on the levels of TBC and Staphylococcus, but no effect was seen on Enterobacteriaceae levels. Thus, the washing treatments used in this study had no effect on the water use of the pork production chain. Although there was no difference in both water use and bacterial load, from a producer perspective, presoaking and detergent use can save time and labour costs, so this would be the preferred option.

Evaluation of adenosine triphosphate testing for on-farm cleanliness monitoring compared to microbiological testing in an empty pig farrowing unit

Careful cleaning and disinfection of pigpens is essential to prevent disease spread and avoid the resultant economic losses. Hygiene in pigpens is generally evaluated by visual monitoring supplemented with bacteriological monitoring, which includes counting the total aerobic bacteria (TAB) and/or fecal indicator bacteria (FIB). However, these methods present drawbacks such as time and labor requirements. As adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is ubiquitous in all living organisms including microorganisms, this study aimed to directly compare the results of microbial assessment and ATP quantification, and to suggest possible detailed application methods of the ATP test for hygiene evaluation in pigpens of a farrowing unit. Before and after standard cleaning procedures, samples were collected from the floor corner, floor center, and feeding trough of four pigpens at different time points. No FIB were detected and both the TAB and ATP levels were significantly decreased in the floor center area after cleaning. FIB were continuously detected after cleaning and disinfection of the floor corners, and there was no significant ATP level reduction. The feeding trough did not show any significant difference in these values before and after cleaning, indicating insufficient cleaning of this area. The levels of TAB and ATP after cleaning were significantly correlated and the average ATP value was significantly lower in the absence of FIB than in their presence. In the absence of standard references, a more thorough hygiene management could be achieved evenly by supplementing cleaning or disinfection based on the lowest ATP results obtained at the cleanest test site, which in the present study was the floor center. Overall, these results indicate that the on-farm ATP test can be used to determine the cleanliness status, in addition to visual inspection, as an alternative to laboratory culture-based testing for the presence of microorganisms.

Under the radar - Exceptionally high environmental concentrations of the high production volume chemical sulfamic acid in the urban water cycle

Elevated concentrations of sulfamate, the anion of sulfamic acid, were found in surface waters and finished drinking water in Germany with concentrations up to 580 μg/L and 140 μg/L, respectively. Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent was identified as the dominant source of sulfamate in the urban water cycle, as sulfamate concentrations correlated positively (0.77 > r < 0.99) with concentrations of the wastewater tracer carbamazepine in samples from different waterbodies. Ozonation and activated sludge experiments proved that sulfamate can be formed from chemical and biological degradation of various precursors. Molar sulfamate yields were highly compound-specific and ranged from 2% to 56%. However, the transformation of precursors to sulfamate in WWTPs and wastewater-impacted waterbodies was found to be quantitatively irrelevant, since concentrations of sulfamate in these compartments are already high, presumably due to its primary use as an acidic cleaning agent. Sulfamate concentrations in the influent and effluent of studied WWTPs ranged from 520 μg/L to 1900 μg/L and from 490 μg/L to 1600 μg/L, respectively. Laboratory batch experiments were performed to assess the recalcitrance of sulfamate for chemical oxidation. In combination with the results from sampling conducted at full-scale waterworks, it was shown that common drinking water treatment techniques, including ozonation and filtration with activated carbon, are not capable to remove sulfamate. The results of biodegradation tests and from the analysis of samples taken at four bank filtration sites indicate that sulfamate is attenuated in the sediment/water interface of aquatic systems and during aquifer passage under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Sulfamate concentrations decreased by between 62% and 99% during aquifer passage at the bank filtration sites. Considering the few data on short term ecotoxicity, about 30% of the presented sulfamate levels in ground and surface water samples did exceed the predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) of sulfamate, and thus effects of sulfamate on the aquatic ecosystem of wastewater-impacted waterbodies in Germany cannot be excluded so far. Toxicological estimations suggest that no risk to human health is expected by concentrations of sulfamate typically encountered in tap water.

Individual training for farmers based on results from protein and ATP rapid tests and microbiological conventional cultural methods improves hygiene in pig fattening pens

Optimal hygiene management is an essential part of maintaining a high standard of health in conventional pig production systems and for the successful interruption of infection chains. Currently, efficiency assessments on cleaning and disinfection are only performed by visual inspection or are neglected completely. The aim of this study was to evaluate the available methods for on farm monitoring of hygiene, identify critical points in pig pens and use the data obtained for training purposes. In addition to visual inspection by assessing the cleanliness, microbiological swab samples, i.e., aerobic total viable count (TVC), total coliform count, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and extended-spectrum β-lactamases-producing bacteria (ESBL), swab samples for ATP as well as protein residues and agar contact plates combined with 3 different culture media, were applied and ranked according to their suitability for livestock farming. Samples were collected on at least 15 critical points from one representative pen on 6 pig fattening farms with various hygiene management practices after cleaning and disinfection. After the first sampling, farmers were trained with their individual results, and sampling was repeated 6 mo after training. Nipple drinkers, feeding tubes (external and inner surface), and troughs (external and inner surface) showed the greatest bacterial loads (TVC: 4.5-6.7 log10 cfu cm-2) and values for ATP and protein residues; therefore, these surfaces could be identified as the most important critical points. Spearman rank correlations (P < 0.01) were found between the different assessment methods, especially for the TVC and ATP (r = 0.82, P < 0.001). For rapid assessment on farms, ATP tests represented an accurate and cost-efficient alternative to microbiological techniques. Training improved cleaning performance as indicated by a lower rating for visual inspection, TVC, ATP, MRSA, and ESBL in the second assessment. The monitoring of cleaning efficiency in pig pens followed by training of the staff constitutes a valuable strategy to limit the spread of infectious diseases and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Special attention should be paid to the sufficient hygiene of drinkers and feeders.

From one species to another: A review on the interaction between chemistry and microbiology in relation to cleaning in the built environment

Since the advent of soap, personal hygiene practices have revolved around removal, sterilization, and disinfection-both of visible soil and microscopic organisms-for a myriad of cultural, aesthetic, or health-related reasons. Cleaning methods and products vary widely in their recommended use, effectiveness, risk to users or building occupants, environmental sustainability, and ecological impact. Advancements in science and technology have facilitated in-depth analyses of the indoor microbiome, and studies in this field suggest that the traditional "scorched-earth cleaning" mentality-that surfaces must be completely sterilized and prevent microbial establishment-may contribute to long-term human health consequences. Moreover, the materials, products, activities, and microbial communities indoors all contribute to, or remove, chemical species to the indoor environment. This review examines the effects of cleaning with respect to the interaction of chemistry, indoor microbiology, and human health.

Risk Factors of Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase Producing Enterobacteriaceae Occurrence in Farms in Reunion, Madagascar and Mayotte Islands, 2016-2017

In South Western Indian ocean (IO), Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-E) are a main public health issue. In livestock, ESBL-E burden was unknown. The aim of this study was estimating the prevalence of ESBL-E on commercial farms in Reunion, Mayotte and Madagascar and genes involved. Secondly, risk factors of ESBL-E occurrence in broiler, beef cattle and pig farms were explored. In 2016-2017, commercial farms were sampled using boot swabs and samples stored at 4 °C before microbiological analysis for phenotypical ESBL-E and gene characterization. A dichotomous questionnaire was performed. Prevalences observed in all production types and territories were high, except for beef cattle in Reunion, which differed significantly. The most common ESBL gene was bla_CTX-M-1. Generalized linear models explaining ESBL-E occurrence varied between livestock production sectors and allowed identifying main protective (e.g., water quality control and detergent use for cleaning) and risk factors (e.g., recent antibiotic use, other farmers visiting the exploitation, pet presence). This study is the first to explore tools for antibiotic resistance management in IO farms. It provides interesting hypothesis to explore about antibiotic use in IO territories and ESBL-E transmission between pig, beef cattle and humans in Madagascar.

Evaluation of an enhanced cleaning and disinfection protocol in Salmonella contaminated pig holdings in the United Kingdom

Salmonella is the second most commonly reported zoonotic gastrointestinal pathogen in the European Union, and a significant proportion of the cases are linked to the consumption of contaminated pork. Reduction of Salmonella at the farm level helps to mininimise the contamination pressure at the slaughterhouse, and therefore the number of Salmonella bacteria entering the food chain. Cleaning and disinfection (C&D) between batches of pigs is an intervention measure that has potential to reduce the transmission of Salmonella contamination within farms. In this study, two pig finisher buildings in each of 10 Salmonella positive farms were sampled pre-C&D, post-C&D, post-restocking with the following batch of pigs, and shortly before these pigs were sent to slaughter. The incoming batch of pigs was also sampled before it reached the study building (pre-restocking). At each visit, pooled and individual faecal samples were collected and Salmonella isolation was carried out according to an ISO 6579:2002 Annex D-based method. One building on each farm (intervention) was cleaned and disinfected according to a rigorous protocol consisting of several steps and a Defra-approved disinfectant used at the General Orders concentration, whilst the other building (control) was cleaned and disinfected as per normal farm routine. At the post-C&D visit, Enterobacteriaceae and total bacterial counts were determined to evaluate residual faecal contamination and general hygiene levels. Rodent specialists visited the farms before and after C&D and rodent carcasses were collected for Salmonella testing. The intervention buildings were significantly less likely (p = 0.004) to be positive for Salmonella after C&D. The pre-restocking pigs had the highest likelihood (p<0.001) of being Salmonella positive (often with multiple serovars) and there was no significant difference between intervention and control buildings in Salmonella prevalence at the post-restocking visit (p = 0.199). However, the pigs housed in the intervention buildings were significantly less likely (p = 0.004) to be positive for Salmonella at slaughter age. Multivariable analysis suggested that cleaning all fixtures of buildings, leaving the pens empty for 2-3 days and using an effective disinfectant are factors significantly improving the likelihood of removing Salmonella contamination during C&D. Signs of rodents were recorded in all farms, but rodent activity and harbourage availability decreased between visits. All the rats tested were Salmonella negative. S. Typhimurium or its monophasic variants were isolated from 6 mouse carcasses in 3 farms where the same serovars were isolated from pigs. This study demonstrates that an appropriate C&D programme significantly reduces the likelihood of residual contamination in Salmonella positive pig buildings, and suggests a significant reduction in the prevalence of Salmonella in the pigs in appropriately cleaned and disinfected buildings when sampled before slaughter. Due to a high prevalence of infection in replacement pigs, control of Salmonella in pig farms is challenging. Rodents may also contribute to the carry-over of infection between batches. C&D is a useful measure to help reduce the number of infected pigs going to the slaughterhouse, but should be supplemented by other control measures along the pig breeding and production chain.

Efficacy of washing and disinfection in cattle markets in Ireland

Background

Few studies have reported on the effectiveness of the washing and disinfection methods used in cattle markets in Ireland. Purchasing cattle into recipient herds poses a high biosecurity risk due to the possibility of introducing disease. In Ireland, livestock markets are an important intermediary in the movement of cattle to new herds. Thus disease control strategies need to consider the disease risk associated with moving livestock through markets. Some cattle are also moved directly from markets for slaughter at abattoirs. Washing and disinfection at markets is utilised to reduce faecal contamination in markets, thereby reducing the risk of disease spread among animals and carcass contamination at slaughter. The primary objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of standard washing and disinfection techniques at markets in Ireland in reducing bacterial contamination on internal structures. Total viable counts (TVC) of colony forming units (CFU) were used as indicators of bacterial contamination, which could include pathogens of public and animal health concern. Four hundred and seventy nine samples were taken mainly from pen floors and the TVC enumerated for each sample.

Results

Washing and disinfection was effective at significantly reducing TVCs on floors and metal bars of market holding pens, but residual contamination remained. Washing market pens only (no disinfection), followed by a rest period between batches of cattle (6.5 days) was as effective at reducing TVCs as washing followed by disinfection and a shorter rest period (5.5 days).

Conclusions

Markets are a potential reservoir for microbial contamination with a resultant increased risk of disease spread by cattle moving through markets into new herds, and carcass contamination for cattle moving directly to slaughter. Therefore, market managers need clear advice and guidance on the development of hygiene programmes that are suitable for use in livestock markets.

Efficacy of disinfectants against porcine rotavirus in the presence and absence of organic matter

Rotavirus is an enteric pathogen that causes morbidity and mortality in young mammals, including pigs. Outbreaks of rotavirus on commercial farms have a significant economic impact in terms of losses in production. Effective cleaning and disinfection along with good farm management can reduce rotavirus contamination in the environment, and decrease the chance of outbreaks of disease. This study investigated the efficacy of six commercial disinfectants against MS2 bacteriophage and Group A porcine rotavirus, in the presence of high and low levels of organic matter to simulate the farm environment. A phenolic-based disinfectant (Bi-OO-cyst) was effective at all levels of organic matter concentrations. Iodophore-based disinfectants did not have a significant virucidal effect against rotavirus under any conditions. For peroxygen compound-based disinfectants and glutaraldehyde-based disinfectants, organic matter load made a significant difference in reducing efficacy. This highlights the importance of thorough cleaning with detergent before disinfection to reduce viral contamination on the farm and decrease rotavirus disease incidence in pigs.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Infection of rotavirus has a negative impact on the health and growth of pigs in production. Given that the virus is transmitted faecal-orally, use of an effective disinfectant on farm, which works even in high organic matter, has the potential to save costs in terms of outbreaks of disease and viral contamination. Here, we test a number of commercial disinfectants of which one a phenolic compound, Bio-OO-cyst, shows effectivity even in high organic matter, implying its use could have a huge impact in reducing viral contamination and preventing losses in production.