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Burgener K, Lichtenberg SS, Walsh DP, Inzalaco HN, Lomax A, Pedersen JA. Prion Seeding Activity in Plant Tissues Detected by RT-QuIC. Pathogens 2024; 13:452. [PMID: 38921750 PMCID: PMC11206635 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13060452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases such as scrapie, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), and chronic wasting disease (CWD) affect domesticated and wild herbivorous mammals. Animals afflicted with CWD, the transmissible spongiform encephalopathy of cervids (deer, elk, and moose), shed prions into the environment, where they may persist and remain infectious for years. These environmental prions may remain in soil, be transported in surface waters, or assimilated into plants. Environmental sampling is an emerging area of TSE research and can provide more information about prion fate and transport once shed by infected animals. In this study, we have developed the first published method for the extraction and detection of prions in plant tissue using the real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay. Incubation with a zwitterionic surfactant followed by precipitation with sodium phosphotungstate concentrates the prions within samples and allows for sensitive detection of prion seeding activity. Using this protocol, we demonstrate that prions can be detected within plant tissues and on plant surfaces using the RT-QuIC assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Burgener
- Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (K.B.)
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Stuart Siegfried Lichtenberg
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
- Minnesota Center for Prion Research and Outreach, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Daniel P. Walsh
- U.S. Geological Survey, Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Heather N. Inzalaco
- Wisconsin Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Aaron Lomax
- Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA;
- Varizymes, Middleton, WI 53562, USA
| | - Joel A. Pedersen
- Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (K.B.)
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
- Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA;
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Mallikarjun A, Charendoff I, Moore MB, Wilson C, Nguyen E, Hendrzak AJ, Poulson J, Gibison M, Otto CM. Assessing Different Chronic Wasting Disease Training Aids for Use with Detection Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:300. [PMID: 38254469 PMCID: PMC10812555 DOI: 10.3390/ani14020300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a highly infectious, fatal prion disease that affects cervid species. One promising method for CWD surveillance is the use of detection dog-handler teams wherein dogs are trained on the volatile organic compound signature of CWD fecal matter. However, using fecal matter from CWD-positive deer poses a biohazard risk; CWD prions can bind to soil particles and remain infectious in contaminated areas for extended periods of time, and it is very difficult to decontaminate the affected areas. One solution is to use noninfectious training aids that can replicate the odor of fecal matter from CWD-positive and CWD-negative deer and are safe to use in the environment. Trained CWD detection dogs' sensitivity and specificity for different training aid materials (cotton, GetXent tubes, and polydimethylsiloxane, or PDMS) incubated with fecal matter from CWD-positive and CWD-negative deer at two different temperatures (21 °C and 37 °C) for three different lengths of time (6 h, 24 h, and 48 h) were evaluated. Cotton incubated at 21 °C for 24 h was identified as the best aid for CWD based on the dogs' performance and practical needs for training aid creation. Implications for CWD detection training and for training aid selection in general are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amritha Mallikarjun
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19146, USA (M.B.M.); (C.W.); (E.N.); (A.J.H.); (J.P.); (C.M.O.)
| | - Ila Charendoff
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19146, USA (M.B.M.); (C.W.); (E.N.); (A.J.H.); (J.P.); (C.M.O.)
| | - Madison B. Moore
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19146, USA (M.B.M.); (C.W.); (E.N.); (A.J.H.); (J.P.); (C.M.O.)
| | - Clara Wilson
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19146, USA (M.B.M.); (C.W.); (E.N.); (A.J.H.); (J.P.); (C.M.O.)
| | - Elizabeth Nguyen
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19146, USA (M.B.M.); (C.W.); (E.N.); (A.J.H.); (J.P.); (C.M.O.)
| | - Abigail J. Hendrzak
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19146, USA (M.B.M.); (C.W.); (E.N.); (A.J.H.); (J.P.); (C.M.O.)
| | - Jean Poulson
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19146, USA (M.B.M.); (C.W.); (E.N.); (A.J.H.); (J.P.); (C.M.O.)
| | - Michelle Gibison
- Wildlife Futures Program, New Bolton Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Kennett Square, PA 19348, USA;
| | - Cynthia M. Otto
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19146, USA (M.B.M.); (C.W.); (E.N.); (A.J.H.); (J.P.); (C.M.O.)
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Advanced Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA
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Harm TA, Smith JD, Cassmann ED, Greenlee JJ. Combinatorial treatment of brain samples from sheep with scrapie using sodium percarbonate, sodium dodecyl sulfate, and proteinase K increases survival time in inoculated susceptible sheep. Res Vet Sci 2022; 152:497-503. [PMID: 36162234 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
The agent of scrapie is resistant to most chemical and physical methods of inactivation. Prions bind to soils, metals, and various materials and persist in the environment confounding the control of prion diseases. Most methods of prion inactivation require severe conditions such as prolong exposure to sodium hypochlorite or autoclaving, which may not be suitable for field conditions. We evaluated the efficacy of a combinatorial approach to inactivation of US scrapie strain x124 under the mild conditions of treating scrapie-affected brain homogenate with sodium percarbonate (SPC), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), or in combination followed by proteinase K (PK) digestion at room temperature. Western blot analysis of treated brain homogenate demonstrates partial reduction in PrPSc immunoreactivity. Genetically susceptible VRQ/ARQ Suffolk sheep were oronasally inoculated with 1 g of SPC (n = 1), SDS (n = 2), SDS + PK (n = 2), and SPC + SDS + PK (n = 4) treated brain homogenate. Sheep were assessed daily for clinical signs, euthanized at the development of clinical disease, and tissues were assessed for accumulation of PrPSc. Scrapie status in all sheep was determined by western blot, enzyme immunoassay, and immunohistochemistry. Mean incubation periods (IPs) for SPC (11.9 months, 0% survival), SDS (12.6 months, 0% survival), SDS + PK (14.0 months, 0% survival), and SPC + SDS + PK (12.5 months, 25% survival) were increased compared to positive control sheep (n = 2, 10.7 months, 0% survival) by 1.2, 1.9, 3.3, and 1.8 months, respectively. Treatment did not influence PrPSc accumulation and distribution at the clinical stage of disease. Differences in mean IPs and survival indicates partial but not complete reduction in scrapie infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler A Harm
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States of America
| | - Jodi D Smith
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States of America
| | - Eric D Cassmann
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States of America
| | - Justin J Greenlee
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA, United States of America.
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Alarcon P, Marco-Jimenez F, Horigan V, Ortiz-Pelaez A, Rajanayagam B, Dryden A, Simmons H, Konold T, Marco C, Charnley J, Spiropoulos J, Cassar C, Adkin A. A review of cleaning and disinfection guidelines and recommendations following an outbreak of classical scrapie. Prev Vet Med 2021; 193:105388. [PMID: 34098231 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Classical scrapie is a prion disease of small ruminants, the infectious agent of which has been shown to be extremely persistent in the environment. Cleaning and disinfection (C&D) after a scrapie outbreak is currently recommended by many governments' veterinary advisors and implemented in most farms affected. Yet, the effectiveness of these procedures remains unclear. The aim of this study was to review existing literature and guidelines regarding farm C&D protocols following classical scrapie outbreaks and assess their effectiveness and the challenges that translation of policy and legislative requirements present at a practical level. A review of the literature was conducted to identify the on-farm C&D protocols used following outbreaks of scrapie, assess those materials with high risk for persistence of the scrapie agent on farms, and review the existing evidence of the effectiveness of recommended C&D protocols. An expert workshop was also organised in Great Britain (GB) to assess: the decision-making process used when implementing C&D protocols on GB farms, the experts' perceptions on the effectiveness of these protocols and changes needed, and their views on potential recommendations for policy and research. Outputs of the literature review revealed that the current recommended protocol for C&D [1 h treatment with sodium hypochlorite containing 20,000 ppm free chlorine or 2 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH)] is based on laboratory experiments. Only four field farm experiments have been conducted, indicating a lack of data on effectiveness of C&D protocols on farms by the re-occurrence of scrapie infection post re-stocking. Recommendations related to the control of outdoor environment, which are difficult and expensive to implement, vary between countries. The expert workshop concluded that there are no practical, cost-effective C&D alternatives to be considered at this time, with control therefore based on C&D only in combination with additional time restrictions on re-stocking and replacement with non-susceptible livestock or more genetically resistant types, where available. Participants agreed that C&D should still be completed on scrapie affected farms, as it is considered to be "good disease practice" and likely to reduce the levels of the prion protein. Participants felt that any additional protocols developed should not be "too prescriptive" (should not be written down in specific policies) because of significant variation in farm types, farm equipment and installations. Under this scenario, control of classical scrapie on farms should be designed with a level of C&D in combination with re-stocking temporal ban and replacement with livestock of limited susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Alarcon
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK; Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK.
| | - Francisco Marco-Jimenez
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK; Department of Animal Sciences, Universitat Politècnica de València, C/Camino de vera s/n, Valencia, 46071, Spain
| | - Verity Horigan
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | | | - Brenda Rajanayagam
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Aidan Dryden
- APHA, Worcester CSC, County Hall, Spetchley Road, Worcester, WR5 2NP, UK
| | - Hugh Simmons
- Department of Pathology and Animal Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Timm Konold
- Department of Pathology and Animal Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.
| | - Carmen Marco
- APHA Advice Services, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Judith Charnley
- APHA Foundry House, Carleton Rd, Skipton North Yorks, BD23 2BE, UK
| | - John Spiropoulos
- Department of Pathology and Animal Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Claire Cassar
- Laboratory Services, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Amie Adkin
- Food Standards Agency, Clive House, 70 Petty France, London, SW1H 9EX, UK
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Booth CJ, Lichtenberg SS, Chappell RJ, Pedersen JA. Chemical Inactivation of Prions Is Altered by Binding to the Soil Mineral Montmorillonite. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:859-870. [PMID: 33787209 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Environmental routes of transmission contribute to the spread of the prion diseases chronic wasting disease of deer and elk and scrapie of sheep and goats. Prions can persist in soils and other environmental matrices and remain infectious for years. Prions bind avidly to the common soil mineral montmorillonite, and such binding can dramatically increase oral disease transmission. Decontamination of soil in captive facilities and natural habitats requires inactivation agents that are effective when prions are bound to soil microparticles. Here, we investigate the inactivation of free and montmorillonite-bound prions with sodium hydroxide, acidic pH, Environ LpH, and sodium hypochlorite. Immunoblotting and bioassays confirm that sodium hydroxide and sodium hypochlorite are effective for prion deactivation, although montmorillonite appears to reduce the efficacy of hypochlorite. Acidic conditions slightly reduce prion infectivity, and the acidic phenolic disinfectant Environ LpH produces slight reductions in infectivity and immunoreactivity. The extent to which the association with montmorillonite protects prions from chemical inactivation appears influenced by the effect of chemical agents on the clay structure and surface pH. When clay morphology remains relatively unaltered, as when exposed to hypochlorite, montmorillonite-bound prions appear to be protected from inactivation. In contrast, when the clay structure is substantially transformed, as when exposed to high concentrations of sodium hydroxide, the attachment to montmorillonite does not slow degradation. A reduction in surface pH appears to cause slight disruptions in clay structure, which enhances degradation under these conditions. We expect our findings will aid the development of remediation approaches for successful decontamination of prion-contaminated sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa J. Booth
- Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | | | - Richard J. Chappell
- Department of Biostatistics & Medical Informatics and Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Joel A. Pedersen
- Molecular and Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
- Department of Soil Science, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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Konold T, Libbey S, Rajanayagam B, Fothergill L, Spiropoulos J, Vidaña B, Alarcon P. Classical Scrapie Did Not Re-occur in Goats After Cleaning and Disinfection of the Farm Premises. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:585. [PMID: 32984416 PMCID: PMC7492743 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
After an outbreak of classical scrapie in a dairy goat herd with over 1,800 goats, all goats in the herd were culled in 2008, cleaning and disinfection of the premises was implemented, and restocking with goats took place ~4 months after depopulation. Ten years later the new herd population is over 3,000 goats. This study was carried out to determine whether the measures were effective to prevent re-occurrence of scrapie to the 1% prevalence level seen when scrapie was first detected on this farm. A total of 280 goats with a minimum age of 18 months, which were predominantly at the end of their productive life, were euthanized, and brain and retropharyngeal lymph node examined by immunohistochemistry for disease-associated prion protein. Genotyping was done in all euthanized goats and live male goats used or intended for breeding to determine prion protein gene polymorphisms associated with resistance to classical scrapie. None of the goats presented with disease-associated prion protein in the examined tissues, and 34 (12.2%) carried the K222 allele associated with resistance. This allele was also found in four breeding male goats. The study results suggested that classical scrapie was not re-introduced on this goat farm through mass restocking or inadequate cleaning and disinfection procedures. Further scrapie surveillance of goats on this farm is desirable to confirm absence of disease. Breeding with male goats carrying the K222 allele should be encouraged to increase the scrapie-resistant population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timm Konold
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Sonja Libbey
- Animal and Plant Health England Field Delivery, Dorchester, United Kingdom
| | - Brenda Rajanayagam
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Louise Fothergill
- Genotyping Unit, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - John Spiropoulos
- Pathology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency Weybridge, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Beatriz Vidaña
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, United Kingdom
| | - Pablo Alarcon
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, United Kingdom
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