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Hayman O, Ansdell P, Angius L, Thomas K, Horsbrough L, Howatson G, Kidgell DJ, Škarabot J, Goodall S. Changes in motor unit behaviour across repeated bouts of eccentric exercise. Exp Physiol 2024. [PMID: 39226215 DOI: 10.1113/ep092070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/05/2024]
Abstract
Unaccustomed eccentric exercise (EE) is protective against muscle damage following a subsequent bout of similar exercise. One hypothesis suggests the existence of an alteration in motor unit (MU) behaviour during the second bout, which might contribute to the adaptive response. Accordingly, the present study investigated MU changes during repeated bouts of EE. During two bouts of exercise where maximal lengthening dorsiflexion (10 repetitions × 10 sets) was performed 3 weeks apart, maximal voluntary isometric torque (MVIC) and MU behaviour (quantified using high-density electromyography; HDsEMG) were measured at baseline, during (after set 5), and post-EE. The HDsEMG signals were decomposed into individual MU discharge timings, and a subset were tracked across each time point. MVIC was reduced similarly in both bouts post-EE (Δ27 vs. 23%, P = 0.144), with a comparable amount of total work performed (∼1,300 J; P = 0.905). In total, 1,754 MUs were identified and the decline in MVIC was accompanied by a stepwise increase in discharge rate (∼13%; P < 0.001). A decrease in relative recruitment was found immediately after EE in Bout 1 versus baseline (∼16%; P < 0.01), along with reductions in derecruitment thresholds immediately after EE in Bout 2. The coefficient of variation of inter-spike intervals was lower in Bout 2 (∼15%; P < 0.001). Our data provide new information regarding a change in MU behaviour during the performance of a repeated bout of EE. Importantly, such changes in MU behaviour might contribute, at least in part, to the repeated bout phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Hayman
- Department of Sport, Exercise, & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health, BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Center, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Paul Ansdell
- Department of Sport, Exercise, & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Luca Angius
- Department of Sport, Exercise, & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Kevin Thomas
- Department of Sport, Exercise, & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Lauren Horsbrough
- Department of Sport, Exercise, & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Department of Sport, Exercise, & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- Water Research Group, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Dawson J Kidgell
- Monash Exercise Neuroplasticity Research Unit, Department of Physiotherapy, School of Primary and Allied Health Care, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Science, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Jakob Škarabot
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Stuart Goodall
- Department of Sport, Exercise, & Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
- Physical Activity, Sport and Recreation Research Focus Area, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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Barenie MJ, Escalera A, Carter SJ, Grange HE, Paris HL, Krinsky D, Sogard AS, Schlader ZJ, Fly AD, Mickleborough TD. Grass-Fed and Non-Grass-Fed Whey Protein Consumption Do Not Attenuate Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage and Soreness in Resistance-Trained Individuals: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial. J Diet Suppl 2023; 21:344-373. [PMID: 37981793 DOI: 10.1080/19390211.2023.2282470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Eccentric muscle contractions can cause structural damage to muscle cells resulting in temporarily decreased muscle force production and soreness. Prior work indicates pasture-raised dairy products from grass-fed cows have greater anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties compared to grain-fed counterparts. However, limited research has evaluated the utility of whey protein from pasture-raised, grass-fed cows to enhance recovery compared to whey protein from non-grass-fed cows. Therefore, using a randomized, placebo-controlled design, we compared the effect of whey protein from pasture-raised, grass-fed cows (PRWP) to conventional whey protein (CWP) supplementation on indirect markers of muscle damage in response to eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) in resistance-trained individuals. Thirty-nine subjects (PRWP, n = 14; CWP, n = 12) completed an eccentric squat protocol to induce EIMD with measurements performed at 24, 48, and 72 h of recovery. Dependent variables included: delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), urinary titin, maximal isometric voluntary contraction (MIVC), potentiated quadriceps twitch force, countermovement jump (CMJ), and barbell back squat velocity (BBSV). Between-condition comparisons did not reveal any significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) in markers of EIMD via DOMS, urinary titin, MIVC, potentiated quadriceps twitch force, CMJ, or BBSV. In conclusion, neither PRWP nor CWP attenuate indirect markers of muscle damage and soreness following eccentric exercise in resistance-trained individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Barenie
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, IN University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
- Center for the Study of Obesity, College of Public Health, University of AR for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA
| | - Albaro Escalera
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, IN University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Stephen J Carter
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, IN University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Hope E Grange
- Department of Applied Health Science, School of Public Health-Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Hunter L Paris
- Department of Sports Medicine, Pepperdine University, Malibu, California, USA
| | - Danielle Krinsky
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, IN University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Abigail S Sogard
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, IN University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Zachary J Schlader
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, IN University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
| | - Alyce D Fly
- Department of Nutrition and Health Science, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA
| | - Timothy D Mickleborough
- Department of Kinesiology, School of Public Health-Bloomington, IN University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
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Contento VS, Power GA. Eccentric exercise-induced muscle weakness amplifies the history dependence of force. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:749-767. [PMID: 36447012 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05105-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Following active lengthening or shortening contractions, isometric steady-state torque is increased (residual force enhancement; rFE) or decreased (residual force depression; rFD), respectively, compared to fixed-end isometric contractions at the same muscle length and level of activation. Though the mechanisms underlying this history dependence of force have been investigated extensively, little is known about the influence of exercise-induced muscle weakness on rFE and rFD. PURPOSE Assess rFE and rFD in the dorsiflexors at 20%, 60%, and 100% maximal voluntary torque (MVC) and activation matching, and electrically stimulated at 20% MVC, prior to, 1 h following, and 24 h following 150 maximal eccentric dorsiflexion contractions. METHODS Twenty-six participants (13 male, 24.7 ± 2.0y; 13 female, 22.5 ± 3.6y) were seated in a dynamometer with their right hip and knee angle set to 110° and 140°, respectively, with an ankle excursion set between 0° and 40° plantar flexion (PF). MVC torque, peak twitch torque, and prolonged low frequency force depression were used to assess eccentric exercise-induced neuromuscular impairments. History-dependent contractions consisted of a 1 s isometric (40°PF or 0°PF) phase, a 1 s shortening or lengthening phase (40°/s), and an 8 s isometric (0°PF or 40°PF) phase. RESULTS Following eccentric exercise; MVC torque was decreased, prolonged low frequency force depression was present, and both rFE and rFD increased for all maximal and submaximal conditions. CONCLUSIONS The history dependence of force during voluntary torque and activation matching, and electrically stimulated contractions is amplified following eccentric exercise. It appears that a weakened neuromuscular system amplifies the magnitude of the history-dependence of force.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo S Contento
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Geoffrey A Power
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
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Jodoin HL, Hinks A, Roussel OP, Contento VS, Dalton BH, Power GA. Eccentric exercise-induced muscle weakness abolishes sex differences in fatigability during sustained submaximal isometric contractions. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2023:S2095-2546(23)00014-5. [PMID: 36801454 PMCID: PMC10362487 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2023.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Females are typically less fatigable than males during sustained isometric contractions at lower isometric contraction intensities. This sex difference in fatigability becomes more variable during higher intensity isometric and dynamic contractions. While less fatiguing than isometric or concentric contractions, eccentric contractions induce greater and longer lasting impairments in force production. However, it is not clear how muscle weakness influences fatigability in males and females during sustained isometric contractions. METHODS We investigated the effects of eccentric exercise-induced muscle weakness on time to task failure (TTF) during a sustained submaximal isometric contraction in young (18-30 years) healthy males (n = 9) and females (n = 10). Participants performed a sustained isometric contraction of the dorsiflexors at 35° plantar flexion by matching a 30% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) torque target until task failure (i.e., falling below 5% of their target torque for ≥2 s). The same sustained isometric contraction was repeated 30 min after 150 maximal eccentric contractions. Agonist and antagonist activation were assessed using surface electromyography over the tibialis anterior and soleus muscles, respectively. RESULTS Males were ∼41% stronger than females. Following eccentric exercise both males and females experienced an ∼20% decline in maximal voluntary contraction torque. TTF was ∼34% longer in females than males prior to eccentric exercise-induced muscle weakness. However, following eccentric exercise-induced muscle weakness, this sex-related difference was abolished, with both groups having an ∼45% shorter TTF. Notably, there was ∼100% greater antagonist activation in the female group during the sustained isometric contraction following exercise-induced weakness as compared to the males. CONCLUSION This increase in antagonist activation disadvantaged females by decreasing their TTF, resulting in a blunting of their typical fatigability advantage over males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna L Jodoin
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Avery Hinks
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Olivia P Roussel
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Vincenzo S Contento
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Brian H Dalton
- School of Health and Exercise Science, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Geoffrey A Power
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
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Rai A, Bhati P, Anand P. Exercise induced muscle damage and repeated bout effect: an update for last 10 years and future perspectives. COMPARATIVE EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.3920/cep220025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) and repeated bout effect (RBE) are widely researched across various populations. EIMD is the muscle damage occurring after one bout of unaccustomed exercise while RBE is the attenuation of the same muscle damage in subsequent second bout. RBE seems to have significant implications for exercise prescription. Despite existence of vast literature, there is lack of clarity on the effects of EIMD and RBE in a healthy population. The purpose of this study is to review the literature on EIMD and RBE in healthy participants published during the last 10 years. The search of major databases (including Scopus, Google Scholar and PubMed) was conducted using specific keywords ‘Exercise induced muscle damage’, ‘Repeated bout effect’, ‘Healthy participants’ ‘Pre-conditioning’, ‘Eccentric exercise’. Studies published from 2011 onwards which included EIMD and RBE assessment in healthy participants were included in this review. Database searching revealed a total of 38 studies on EIMD and RBE in healthy participants. Three major themes of papers were identified that focused on EIMD and RBE along with (1) age related differences, (2) sex-based differences, and (3) response in athletes. Findings of this comprehensive review suggests that both EIMD and RBE are age, and sex specific. Delayed onset muscle soreness played a major role in both EIMD and RBE in all the population types. Female participants are less susceptible to EIMD as compared to age-matched male counterparts. Moreover, both EIMD and RBE are more elicited in middle aged and younger adults as compared to children and older adults while the magnitude of RBE turns out to be minimal in trained individuals due to persisting adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Rai
- Faculty of Physiotherapy, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
| | - P. Bhati
- Faculty of Physiotherapy, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
| | - P. Anand
- Faculty of Physiotherapy, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
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Watanabe D, Ikegami R, Kano Y. Predominant cause of faster force recovery in females than males after intense eccentric contractions in mouse fast-twitch muscle. J Physiol 2021; 599:4337-4356. [PMID: 34368970 DOI: 10.1113/jp281927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS We investigated the mechanisms underlying faster force recovery from eccentric contractions (ECCs) in female than in male mice, focusing on mitochondrial responses. At 3 days after repeated ECCs (REC3), female mice showed faster recovery from ECC-induced force depression than male mice. At REC3, the mitochondria in females displayed superior responses to those in males: (i) mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter content of muscles at REC3 was higher than that of rested muscles in females, and (ii) mitochondrial volume density in females was higher than that in males at REC3. Ovariectomized (OVX) female mice showed lower mitochondrial responses at REC3, similar to those observed in male mice, but oestrogen replacement nullified such lower responses in OVX. We concluded that: (i) superior mitochondrial responses after ECCs, at least in part, cause faster force recovery from ECCs in females than in males, and (ii) oestrogen contributes to such superior responses in the mitochondria in females. ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanisms underlying sex differences in force recovery after eccentric contractions (ECCs). The left limbs of female and male mice were exposed to repeated ECCs (five sets of 50 contractions) elicited in vivo in the plantar flexor muscles. Isometric torques were measured before, immediately and at 3 days after ECCs (REC3), and gastrocnemius muscles obtained at REC3 were used for biochemical and morphological analyses. At REC3, a greater torque depression at 40 Hz was observed in males than females. Additionally, the following differences were observed at REC3: (i) in males but not females, triad structure was distorted, (ii) mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter (MCU) content was increased in females but not in males, and (iii) mitochondrial volume density at REC3 was lower in males than in females. To examine the contribution of oestrogen to torque recovery, female mice were assigned to sham-operated (Sham), ovariectomized (OVX) and OVX treated with 17β-oestradiol (OVX + E2) groups. At REC3, (i) greater torque depression at 40 Hz was observed in the OVX group than in the Sham and OVX + E2 groups, (ii) MCU content was increased in the Sham and OVX + E2 groups but not the OVX group, and (iii) mitochondrial volume density at REC3 was lower in the OVX group than the Sham and OVX + E2 groups. These results suggest that faster force recovery in females than in males is, at least partly, ascribable to superior mitochondrial responses, and oestrogen supplementation, in part, enhances such responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daiki Watanabe
- Graduate School of Humanity and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Ryo Ikegami
- Department of Physical Therapy, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | - Yutaka Kano
- Department of Engineering Sciences, Center for Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering (CNBE), University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo, Japan
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Ruggiero L, Bruce CD, Streight HB, McNeil CJ. Maximal results with minimal stimuli: the fewest high-frequency pulses needed to measure or model prolonged low-frequency force depression in the dorsiflexors. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2021; 131:716-728. [PMID: 34197229 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00211.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantifying prolonged low-frequency force depression (PLFFD) with the gold-standard 1-s trains presents challenges, so paired pulses have been used. Owing to greater impairment of high-frequency doublet than tetanic torque, paired pulses underestimate PLFFD. This study aimed to approximate the minimum number of high-frequency pulses needed to avoid such underestimation and assess the feasibility of modeling PLFFD from a limited number of experimental pulses. In 13 participants, a 1-s 10-Hz train and 100-Hz trains with 2, 4, 7, 12, 15, 25, 50, or 100 pulses were evoked before and after (15 min, 2, 4, and 7 days) eccentric exercise of the dorsiflexors. With ≤12 pulses, impairment of 100-Hz torque was greater than the 1-s train (P ≤ 0.05; e.g., 12 vs. 100 pulses at 4 days: 97.8 ± 8.5% vs. 100.5 ± 8.2% baseline). Consequently, with ≤12 pulses, PLFFD was underestimated compared with the gold-standard measure (P ≤ 0.05; e.g., 12 vs. 100 pulse 10:100-Hz torque ratio at 4 days: 86.8 ± 12.8% vs. 84.6 ± 13.5% baseline). Modeling reproduced 10:100-Hz ratios (PLFFD) with 95% limits of agreement of -13.6% to 16.7% of experimental values with ≥12 pulses. Our results indicate that a minimum of 13-25 pulses of 100 Hz are needed to accurately quantify PLFFD in the dorsiflexors. Although this may not be the minimum range for other muscles, a similar relationship with pulse number likely exists. Modeling may eventually provide an option to estimate PLFFD from experimental trains with relatively few pulses; however, further development is imperative to reduce variability.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Ideally, prolonged low-frequency force depression (PLFFD) is measured with 1-s trains of supramaximal stimuli; however, this induces considerable discomfort. We tested briefer trains to approximate the minimum number of high-frequency pulses needed to accurately determine PLFFD and the feasibility of modeling 1-s tetani with relatively few pulses. After eccentric exercise, 13-25 high-frequency pulses were needed to accurately measure PLFFD. Modeling reproduced mean experimental values but had considerable variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Ruggiero
- Integrated Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada.,Laboratory of Physiomechanics of Locomotion, Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Christina D Bruce
- Integrated Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Hannah B Streight
- Integrated Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Chris J McNeil
- Integrated Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
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Hinks A, Hess A, Debenham MIB, Chen J, Mazara N, Inkol KA, Cervone DT, Spriet LL, Dalton BH, Power GA. Power loss is attenuated following a second bout of high-intensity eccentric contractions due to the repeated bout effect's protection of rate of torque and velocity development. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 46:461-472. [PMID: 33125854 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2020-0641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
High-intensity unaccustomed eccentric contractions result in weakness and power loss because of fatigue and muscle damage. Through the repeated bout effect (RBE), adaptations occur, then damage and weakness are attenuated following a subsequent bout. However, it is unclear whether the RBE protects peak power output. We investigated the influence of the RBE on power production and estimated fatigue- and damage-induced neuromuscular impairments following repeated high-intensity eccentric contractions. Twelve healthy adult males performed 5 sets of 30 maximal eccentric elbow flexions and repeated an identical bout 4 weeks later. Recovery was tracked over 7 days following both bouts. Reduced maximum voluntary isometric contraction torque, and increased serum creatine kinase and self-reported soreness indirectly inferred muscle damage. Peak isotonic power, time-dependent measures - rate of velocity development (RVD) and rate of torque development (RTD) - and several electrophysiological indices of neuromuscular function were assessed. The RBE protected peak power, with a protective index of 66% 24 h after the second eccentric exercise bout. The protection of power also related to preserved RVD (R2 = 0.61, P < 0.01) and RTD (R2 = 0.39, P < 0.01). Furthermore, the RBE's protection against muscle damage permitted the estimation of fatigue-associated neuromuscular performance decrements following eccentric exercise. Novelty: The repeated bout effect protects peak isotonic power. Protection of peak power relates to preserved rates of torque and velocity development, but more so rate of velocity development. The repeated bout effect has little influence on indices of neuromuscular fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery Hinks
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Adam Hess
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Mathew I B Debenham
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Jackey Chen
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Nicole Mazara
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Keaton A Inkol
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.,Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Daniel T Cervone
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Lawrence L Spriet
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Brian H Dalton
- School of Health and Exercise Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Geoffrey A Power
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
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