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Cheng H, Liu H, Li W, Li M. Recent advances in magnetic digital microfluidic platforms. Electrophoresis 2021; 42:2329-2346. [PMID: 34196022 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202100088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Magnetic Digital microfluidics (DMF), which enables the manipulation of droplets containing different types of samples and reagents by permanent magnets or electromagnet arrays, has been used as a promising platform technology for bioanalytical and preparative assays. This is due to its unique advantages such as simple and "power free" operation, easy assembly, great compatibility with auto control systems, and dual functionality of magnetic particles (actuation and target attachment). Over the past decades, magnetic DMF technique has gained a widespread attention in many fields such as sample-to-answer molecular diagnostics, immunoassays, cell assays, on-demand chemical synthesis, and single-cell manipulation. In the first part of this review, we summarised features of magnetic DMF. Then, we introduced the actuation mechanisms and fabrication of magnetic DMF. Furthermore, we discussed five main applications of magnetic DMF, namely drug screening, protein assays, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), cell manipulation, and chemical analysis and synthesis. In the last part of the review, current challenges and limitations with magnetic DMF technique were discussed, such as biocompatibility, automation of microdroplet control systems, and microdroplet evaporation, with an eye on towards future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Cheng
- Laboratoire de Thermique et Energie de Nantes (LTEN), UMR CNRS 6607, Polytech' Nantes-Université de Nantes, Nantes Cedex 03, France.,School of Mechanical, Materials, Mechatronic and Biomedical Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Hangrui Liu
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Weihua Li
- School of Mechanical, Materials, Mechatronic and Biomedical Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Ming Li
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Biomolecular Discovery Research Centre, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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2
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Kremers T, Thelen S, Bosbach N, Schnakenberg U. PortaDrop: A portable digital microfluidic platform providing versatile opportunities for Lab-On-A-Chip applications. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0238581. [PMID: 32881948 PMCID: PMC7470335 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0238581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Electrowetting-on-dielectric is a decent technique to manipulate discrete volumes of liquid in form of droplets. In the last decade, electrowetting-on-dielectric systems, also called digital microfluidic systems, became more frequently used for a variety of applications because of their high flexibility and reconfigurability. Thus, one design can be adapted to different assays by only reprogramming. However, this flexibility can only be useful if the entire system is portable and easy to use. This paper presents the development of a portable, stand-alone digital microfluidic system based on a Linux-based operating system running on a Raspberry Pi, which is unique. We present "PortaDrop" exhibiting the following key features: (1) an "all-in-one box" approach, (2) a user-friendly, self-explaining graphical user interface and easy handling, (3) the ability of integrated electrochemical measurements, (4) the ease to implement additional lab equipment via Universal Serial Bus and the General Purpose Interface Bus as well as (5) a standardized experiment documentation. We propose that PortaDrop can be used to carry out experiments in different applications, where small sample volumes in the nanoliter to picoliter range need to be handled an analyzed automatically. As a first application, we present a protocol, where a droplet is consequently exchanged by droplets of another medium using passive dispensing. The exchange is monitored by electrical impedance spectroscopy. It is the first time, the media exchange caused by passive dispensing is characterized by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Summarizing, PortaDrop allows easy combination of fluid handling by means of electrowetting and additional sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Kremers
- Chair of Micro- and Nanosystems and Institute of Materials in Electrical Engineering 1, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Sarah Thelen
- Chair of Micro- and Nanosystems and Institute of Materials in Electrical Engineering 1, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Nils Bosbach
- Chair of Micro- and Nanosystems and Institute of Materials in Electrical Engineering 1, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Uwe Schnakenberg
- Chair of Micro- and Nanosystems and Institute of Materials in Electrical Engineering 1, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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3
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Kothamachu VB, Zaini S, Muffatto F. Role of Digital Microfluidics in Enabling Access to Laboratory Automation and Making Biology Programmable. SLAS Technol 2020; 25:411-426. [PMID: 32584152 DOI: 10.1177/2472630320931794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Digital microfluidics (DMF) is a liquid handling technique that has been demonstrated to automate biological experimentation in a low-cost, rapid, and programmable manner. This review discusses the role of DMF as a "digital bioconverter"-a tool to connect the digital aspects of the design-build-learn cycle with the physical execution of experiments. Several applications are reviewed to demonstrate the utility of DMF as a digital bioconverter, namely, genetic engineering, sample preparation for sequencing and mass spectrometry, and enzyme-, immuno-, and cell-based screening assays. These applications show that DMF has great potential in the role of a centralized execution platform in a fully integrated pipeline for the production of novel organisms and biomolecules. In this paper, we discuss how the function of a DMF device within such a pipeline is highly dependent on integration with different sensing techniques and methodologies from machine learning and big data. In addition to that, we examine how the capacity of DMF can in some cases be limited by known technical and operational challenges and how consolidated efforts in overcoming these challenges will be key to the development of DMF as a major enabling technology in the computer-aided biology framework.
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4
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Dixon C, Lamanna J, Wheeler AR. Direct loading of blood for plasma separation and diagnostic assays on a digital microfluidic device. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:1845-1855. [PMID: 32338260 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00302f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Finger-stick blood sampling is convenient for point of care diagnostics, but whole blood samples are problematic for many assays because of severe matrix effects associated with blood cells and cell debris. We introduce a new digital microfluidic (DMF) diagnostic platform with integrated porous membranes for blood-plasma separation from finger-stick blood volumes, capable of performing complex, multi-step, diagnostic assays. Importantly, the samples can be directly loaded onto the device by a finger "dab" for user-friendly operation. We characterize the platform by comparison to plasma generated via the "gold standard" centrifugation technique, and demonstrate a 21-step rubella virus (RV) IgG immunoassay yielding a detection limit of 1.9 IU mL-1, below the diagnostic cut-off. We propose that this work represents a critical next step in DMF based portable diagnostic assays-allowing the analysis of whole blood samples without pre-processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Dixon
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80. St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.
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5
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Dixon C, Ng AHC, Fobel R, Miltenburg MB, Wheeler AR. An inkjet printed, roll-coated digital microfluidic device for inexpensive, miniaturized diagnostic assays. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:4560-4568. [PMID: 27801455 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc01064d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The diagnosis of infectious disease is typically carried out at the point-of-care (POC) using the lateral flow assay (LFA). While cost-effective and portable, LFAs often lack the clinical sensitivity and specificity required for accurate diagnoses. In response to this challenge, we introduce a new digital microfluidic (DMF) platform fabricated using a custom inkjet printing and roll-coating process that is scalable to mass production. The performance of the new devices is on par with that of traditional DMF devices fabricated in a cleanroom, with a materials cost for the new devices of only US $0.63 per device. To evaluate the usefulness of the new platform, we performed a 13-step rubella virus (RV) IgG immunoassay on the inkjet printed, roll-coated devices, which yielded a limit of detection of 0.02 IU mL-1, well below the diagnostic cut-off of 10 IU mL-1 for RV infection and immunity. We propose that this represents a breakthrough for DMF, lowering the costs to a level such that the new platforms will be an attractive alternative to LFAs for the diagnosis of infectious disease at the POC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Dixon
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | - Alphonsus H C Ng
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada and Institute for Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Ryan Fobel
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada and Institute for Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Mark B Miltenburg
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.
| | - Aaron R Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada. and Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada and Institute for Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
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6
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Seale B, Lam C, Rackus DG, Chamberlain MD, Liu C, Wheeler AR. Digital Microfluidics for Immunoprecipitation. Anal Chem 2016; 88:10223-10230. [PMID: 27700039 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b02915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Immunoprecipitation (IP) is a common method for isolating a targeted protein from a complex sample such as blood, serum, or cell lysate. In particular, IP is often used as the primary means of target purification for the analysis by mass spectrometry of novel biologically derived pharmaceuticals, with particular utility for the identification of molecules bound to a protein target. Unfortunately, IP is a labor-intensive technique, is difficult to perform in parallel, and has limited options for automation. Furthermore, the technique is typically limited to large sample volumes, making the application of IP cleanup to precious samples nearly impossible. In recognition of these challenges, we introduce a method for performing microscale IP using magnetic particles and digital microfluidics (DMF-IP). The new method allows for 80% recovery of model proteins from approximately microliter volumes of serum in a sample-to-answer run time of approximately 25 min. Uniquely, analytes are eluted from these small samples in a format compatible with direct analysis by mass spectrometry. To extend the technique to be useful for large samples, we also developed a macro-to-microscale interface called preconcentration using liquid intake by paper (P-CLIP). This technique allows for efficient analysis of samples >100× larger than are typically processed on microfluidic devices. As described herein, DMF-IP and P-CLIP-DMF-IP are rapid, automated, and multiplexed methods that have the potential to reduce the time and effort required for IP sample preparations with applications in the fields of pharmacy, biomarker discovery, and protein biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendon Seale
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Charis Lam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Darius G Rackus
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research , 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - M Dean Chamberlain
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research , 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Chang Liu
- SCIEX , 71 Four Valley Drive, Concord, Ontario L4K 4V8, Canada
| | - Aaron R Wheeler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada.,Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research , 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada.,Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto , 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
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7
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Samiei E, Tabrizian M, Hoorfar M. A review of digital microfluidics as portable platforms for lab-on a-chip applications. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:2376-96. [PMID: 27272540 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc00387g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Following the development of microfluidic systems, there has been a high tendency towards developing lab-on-a-chip devices for biochemical applications. A great deal of effort has been devoted to improve and advance these devices with the goal of performing complete sets of biochemical assays on the device and possibly developing portable platforms for point of care applications. Among the different microfluidic systems used for such a purpose, digital microfluidics (DMF) shows high flexibility and capability of performing multiplex and parallel biochemical operations, and hence, has been considered as a suitable candidate for lab-on-a-chip applications. In this review, we discuss the most recent advances in the DMF platforms, and evaluate the feasibility of developing multifunctional packages for performing complete sets of processes of biochemical assays, particularly for point-of-care applications. The progress in the development of DMF systems is reviewed from eight different aspects, including device fabrication, basic fluidic operations, automation, manipulation of biological samples, advanced operations, detection, biological applications, and finally, packaging and portability of the DMF devices. Success in developing the lab-on-a-chip DMF devices will be concluded based on the advances achieved in each of these aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan Samiei
- School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada.
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Knob R, Sahore V, Sonker M, Woolley AT. Advances in monoliths and related porous materials for microfluidics. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2016; 10:032901. [PMID: 27190564 PMCID: PMC4859832 DOI: 10.1063/1.4948507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the use of monolithic porous polymers has seen significant growth. These materials present a highly useful support for various analytical and biochemical applications. Since their introduction, various approaches have been introduced to produce monoliths in a broad range of materials. Simple preparation has enabled their easy implementation in microchannels, extending the range of applications where microfluidics can be successfully utilized. This review summarizes progress regarding monoliths and related porous materials in the field of microfluidics between 2010 and 2015. Recent developments in monolith preparation, solid-phase extraction, separations, and catalysis are critically discussed. Finally, a brief overview of the use of these porous materials for analysis of subcellular and larger structures is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radim Knob
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University , Provo, Utah 84602, USA
| | - Vishal Sahore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University , Provo, Utah 84602, USA
| | - Mukul Sonker
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University , Provo, Utah 84602, USA
| | - Adam T Woolley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University , Provo, Utah 84602, USA
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9
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Xie Y, Chindam C, Nama N, Yang S, Lu M, Zhao Y, Mai JD, Costanzo F, Huang TJ. Exploring bubble oscillation and mass transfer enhancement in acoustic-assisted liquid-liquid extraction with a microfluidic device. Sci Rep 2015. [PMID: 26223474 PMCID: PMC4519785 DOI: 10.1038/srep12572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated bubble oscillation and its induced enhancement of mass transfer in a liquid-liquid extraction process with an acoustically-driven, bubble-based microfluidic device. The oscillation of individually trapped bubbles, of known sizes, in microchannels was studied at both a fixed frequency, and over a range of frequencies. Resonant frequencies were analytically identified and were found to be in agreement with the experimental observations. The acoustic streaming induced by the bubble oscillation was identified as the cause of this enhanced extraction. Experiments extracting Rhodanmine B from an aqueous phase (DI water) to an organic phase (1-octanol) were performed to determine the relationship between extraction efficiency and applied acoustic power. The enhanced efficiency in mass transport via these acoustic-energy-assisted processes was confirmed by comparisons against a pure diffusion-based process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuliang Xie
- 1] Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA [2] Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Chandraprakash Chindam
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Nitesh Nama
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Shikuan Yang
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Mengqian Lu
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Yanhui Zhao
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - John D Mai
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Francesco Costanzo
- 1] Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA [2] Center for Neural Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Tony Jun Huang
- 1] Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA [2] Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA [3] Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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10
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Kim J, Abdulwahab S, Choi K, Lafrenière NM, Mudrik JM, Gomaa H, Ahmado H, Behan LA, Casper RF, Wheeler AR. A Microfluidic Technique for Quantification of Steroids in Core Needle Biopsies. Anal Chem 2015; 87:4688-95. [DOI: 10.1021/ac5043297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jihye Kim
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Sara Abdulwahab
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Kihwan Choi
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
- Donnelly Centre
for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College
Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Nelson M. Lafrenière
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Jared M. Mudrik
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Hala Gomaa
- Samuel Lunenfeld
Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, Ontario M5T 3H7, Canada
| | - Hend Ahmado
- Samuel Lunenfeld
Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, Ontario M5T 3H7, Canada
| | - Lucy-Ann Behan
- Samuel Lunenfeld
Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, Ontario M5T 3H7, Canada
| | - Robert F. Casper
- Samuel Lunenfeld
Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, 25 Orde Street, Toronto, Ontario M5T 3H7, Canada
| | - Aaron R. Wheeler
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 Saint George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials
and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- Donnelly Centre
for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, 160 College
Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
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11
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Lafrenière NM, Mudrik JM, Ng AHC, Seale B, Spooner N, Wheeler AR. Attractive Design: An Elution Solvent Optimization Platform for Magnetic-Bead-based Fractionation Using Digital Microfluidics and Design of Experiments. Anal Chem 2015; 87:3902-10. [DOI: 10.1021/ac504697r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nelson M. Lafrenière
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Jared M. Mudrik
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Alphonsus H. C. Ng
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Brendon Seale
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Neil Spooner
- Platform Technologies
and Science Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Ware, Hertfordshire SG12 0DP, United Kingdom
| | - Aaron R. Wheeler
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
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12
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Mei N, Seale B, Ng AH, Wheeler AR, Oleschuk R. Digital Microfluidic Platform for Human Plasma Protein Depletion. Anal Chem 2014; 86:8466-72. [DOI: 10.1021/ac5022198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ningsi Mei
- Department
of Chemistry, Queen’s University, 90 Bader Lane, Kingston, Ontario K7L
3N6, Canada
| | - Brendon Seale
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Alphonsus H.C. Ng
- Institute
of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Aaron R. Wheeler
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
- Institute
of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, 164 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- Donnelly Centre for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, 160 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Richard Oleschuk
- Department
of Chemistry, Queen’s University, 90 Bader Lane, Kingston, Ontario K7L
3N6, Canada
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