Multiscale assessment of habitat selection and avoidance of sympatric carnivores by the endangered ocelot

Habitat selection by animals is a complex, dynamic process that can vary across spatial and temporal scales. Understanding habitat selection is a vital component of managing endangered species. Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), a medium-sized endangered felid, overlap in their northern range with bobcats (Lynx rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans), with all three species sharing similar space and resource use. As the potential for competition between these three carnivores is high, understanding differences in habitat use and the effect of these potential competitors on habitat selection of ocelots is essential to conservation. Our objective was to compare habitat selection between species and examine if ocelots avoided areas used by competitors at broad and fine scales. We captured and collared 8 ocelots, 13 bobcats, and 5 coyotes on the East Foundation's El Sauz Ranch and the Yturria San Francisco Ranch in South Texas, USA from 2017 to 2021. We compared 2nd (position of home range) and 3rd (use within the home range) order selection across species and examined whether ocelots avoided areas categorized as high probability of use by bobcats and coyotes across both orders of selection. We found a preference for heterogeneous landscapes by bobcats and coyotes while ocelots were strongly tied to woody cover across both orders. At the 2nd order, ocelots selected areas with higher probability of use by bobcats and showed no response to higher probability of use by coyotes, suggesting ocelots did not avoid either species. However, at the 3rd order, ocelots avoided areas used by coyotes. Ocelots selected for areas of use by bobcats at the 2nd order and 3rd order. Results suggest that at the broader scale, placement of the home range is not affected by the presence of sympatric carnivores, however, at a finer scale, ocelots are avoiding coyotes but not bobcats. Our study emphasizes the importance of woody and herbaceous cover at the broad scale and dense vegetation at the finer scale to sustain ocelots. In addition, we show differing patterns of interspecific avoidance by ocelots across species and scales.

Recursive use of home ranges and seasonal shifts in foraging behavior by a generalist carnivore

Coyotes (Canis latrans) colonized the southeastern United States over the last century as large predators, including the red wolf (Canis rufus) and eastern cougar (Puma concolor), were extirpated from the region. As a generalist carnivore, the coyote preys on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and various smaller mammals, birds, and vegetation. While resource selection by coyotes has been well documented at the home-range scale, little is known about their foraging behavior, which is an important factor in thoroughly understanding influences of coyotes on prey and sympatric carnivores. We assessed third-order resource selection of coyotes at sites across Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina during 2015-2016. Using GPS collars, we tracked 41 resident coyotes across four calendar seasons and identified suspected foraging areas using recursive analysis where individuals repeatedly returned to known locations. We found that resident coyotes selected for open landcover types throughout the year, while avoiding primary and secondary roads. Additionally, resident coyotes avoided forested landcover types while selecting for forest edges except from April to June when they foraged within interior forest away from edges. Previous studies have documented substantive predation rates on white-tailed deer neonates by coyotes, and that fawn mortality may increase in forested landscapes away from forest edge. Our findings indicate that foraging coyotes may select forest cover types during spring where fawns are more vulnerable to predation. Additionally, there has been debate in the literature as to how coyotes obtain consistent levels of deer in their diets outside of fawning and fall hunting seasons. Our study indicates that use of road-kill carcasses by coyotes was an unlikely explanation for the presence of deer in coyote diets throughout the year, as coyotes in our study were not observed using roads during foraging excursions.

Ecological Knowledge and Management of Fauna Among the Mexicatl of the Sierra Negra, México: An Interpretive Approach

Generally motivated by the relevance of animals in human subsistence, the management of fauna has taken different shapes throughout the world. This study aims to analyse a typology of management forms, exploring their relationship with the motivation to maintain coexistence and use of fauna and mitigate negative human-fauna interactions by the Mexicatl (Nahua) people in Central Mexico. We generally expected to find a broad spectrum of management types in a gradient of interactions intensity. This is because we hypothesised that the more meaningful these interactions due to the magnitude of benefit or damage, philias, or phobias among other positive or negative perceptions, and ecological aspects and management viability, the more actions and practices might be motivated to maintain or mitigate them. We conducted a qualitative research based on interpretivist approaches, mixing qualitative and quantitative analyses, to register the Mexicatl names of fauna present in the area and recognised by locals and to analyse the influence of local ecological knowledge (LEK) and natural history as perceived by people on the use, conflicts, and management practices regarding local fauna. In order to gather such information, in 2018 and 2019 we generated 356 free lists of fauna and 20 sessions of group interviews about the presence of animals in the area, the Mexicatl name, information on distribution, diet, use, management, and other facts. We used visual stimuli with children and young people from schools of basic and intermediate levels in five rural communities and the municipal head of Coyomeapan, Puebla. We also generated free lists and in-depth interviews with 18 persons older than 16 years. People recognised 114 animal items, the most salient being 11 domestic and 14 wild animals including deer, medium and small mammals, snakes, and birds. For both domestic and wild fauna, people reported 18 use categories and three types of damage (crop losses, predation of domestic animals, and damages to health). LEK interacted with traditional celebrations, religious beliefs, land tenure, and migration to define preferences and management types of fauna. Bushmeat demand, especially for Mazama temama and Cuniculus paca, was related to a perception of healthy nutrition properties. Management actions included husbandry of domestic animals, extraction of wild animals for supply, or to avoid damages, captivity, tolerance to damage, protection of seeds and domestic animals threatened by wild fauna, regulations for extraction of wild fauna, and agreements to prevent conflicts. Mixed quantitative and qualitative approaches allowed the interpretation of the human-fauna interactions related to subsistence, coexistence, and the high relevance of LEK, perceptions, religious beliefs, ecosystem, socio-demographic factors, and animal behaviour and habits, which are crucial factors that influence the shaping of management practices. Local management strategies of fauna were diverse and contribute to biocultural conservation and theoretical construction on domestication.

Fine-scale movements and behaviors of coyotes (Canis latrans) during their reproductive period

In canids, resident breeders hold territories but require different resources than transient individuals (i.e., dispersers), which may result in differential use of space, land cover, and food by residents and transients. In the southeastern United States, coyote (Canis latrans) reproduction occurs during spring and is energetically demanding for residents, but transients do not reproduce and therefore can exhibit feeding behaviors with lower energetic rewards. Hence, how coyotes behave in their environment likely differs between resident and transient coyotes. We captured and monitored 36 coyotes in Georgia during 2018-2019 and used data from 11 resident breeders, 12 predispersing residents (i.e., offspring of resident breeders), and 11 transients to determine space use, movements, and relationships between these behaviors and landcover characteristics. Average home range size for resident breeders and predispersing offspring was 20.7 ± 2.5 km² and 50.7 ± 10.0 km², respectively. Average size of transient ranges was 241.4 ± 114.5 km². Daily distance moved was 6.3 ± 3.0 km for resident males, 5.5 ± 2.7 km for resident females, and 6.9 ± 4.2 km for transients. We estimated first-passage time values to assess the scale at which coyotes respond to their environment, and used behavioral change-point analysis to determine that coyotes exhibited three behavioral states. We found notable differences between resident and transient coyotes in regard to how landcover characteristics influenced their behavioral states. Resident coyotes tended to select for areas with denser vegetation while resting and foraging, but for areas with less dense vegetation and canopy cover when walking. Transient coyotes selected areas closer to roads and with lower canopy cover while resting, but for areas farther from roads when foraging and walking. Our findings suggest that behaviors of both resident and transient coyotes are influenced by varying landcover characteristics, which could have implications for prey.

Predation risk increases intraspecific heterogeneity in white-tailed deer diel activity patterns

Prey species often mitigate predation risk through alteration of spatiotemporal diel activity patterns whereby prey access high-quality resources in risky areas during predator downtimes. However, dominance hierarchies exist in some prey species, and temporal partitioning is a mechanism thought to reduce aggressive intraspecific interactions. How demographic-specific responses to predation risk influence intraspecific temporal partitioning in prey are largely unknown and could be key to understanding the effects of predators on intraspecific interactions in prey. To assess the effects of predation risk on intraspecific interactions in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), we monitored deer diel activity during the fawning season in four pairs of predator exclusion and control plots (~40 ha) from 2015 to 2018 using 16 camera traps. We examined the effect of predation risk on diel activity of males, females, and nursery groups by comparing the within-group coefficient of activity overlap (d̂) across predator exclusion and control plots. We then examined within-treatment activity overlap between groups in the predator exclosure and control plots. All groups maintained different diel activity patterns in safe and risky areas. Unconstrained by predation risk, all groups behaved more similarly, and interspecific group overlap was greater in the predator exclusion plots than control plots. Male-nursery group overlap exhibited the strongest treatment effect, increasing 24% in predator exclusion plots (d̂ = 0.91, confidence interval [CI]: 0.87–0.95) relative to control plots (d̂ = 0.67, CI: 0.57–0.76). Our results suggest predators increase heterogeneity in prey behavior and may be important drivers of behavioral processes, such as temporal partitioning, that minimize antagonistic intraspecific interactions of prey.

Raccoon Vigilance and Activity Patterns When Sympatric with Coyotes

Nonconsumptive effects of predators potentially have negative fitness consequences on prey species through changes in prey behavior. Coyotes (Canis latrans) recently expanded into the eastern United States, and raccoons (Procyon lotor) are a common mesocarnivore that potentially serve as competitors and food for coyotes. We used camera traps at baited sites to quantify vigilance behavior of feeding raccoons and used binomial logistic regression to analyze the effects of social and environmental factors. Additionally, we created raccoon and coyote activity patterns from the camera trap data by fitting density functions based on circular statistics and calculating the coefficient of overlap (Δ). Overall, raccoons were vigilant 46% of the time while foraging at baited sites. Raccoons were more vigilant during full moon and diurnal hours but less vigilant as group size increased and when other species were present. Raccoons and coyotes demonstrated nocturnal activity patterns, with coyotes more likely to be active during daylight hours. Overall, raccoons did not appear to exhibit high levels of vigilance. Activity pattern results provided further evidence that raccoons do not appear to fear coyotes, as both species were active at the same time and showed a high degree of overlap (Δ = 0.75) with little evidence of temporal segregation in activity. Thus, our study indicates that nonconsumptive effects of coyotes on raccoons are unlikely, which calls into question the ability of coyotes to initiate strong trophic cascades through some mesocarnivores.

Predator responses to fire: A global systematic review and meta-analysis

Knowledge of how disturbances such as fire shape habitat structure and composition, and affect animal interactions, is fundamental to ecology and ecosystem management. Predators also exert strong effects on ecological communities, through top-down regulation of prey and competitors, which can result in trophic cascades. Despite their ubiquity, ecological importance and potential to interact with fire, our general understanding of how predators respond to fire remains poor, hampering ecosystem management. To address this important knowledge gap, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of fire on terrestrial, vertebrate predators world-wide. We found 160 studies spanning 1978-2018. There were 36 studies with sufficient information for meta-analysis, from which we extracted 96 effect sizes (Hedges' g) for 67 predator species relating to changes in abundance indices, occupancy or resource selection in burned and unburned areas, or before and after fire. Studies spanned geographic locations, taxonomic families and study designs, but most were located in North America and Oceania (59% and 24%, respectively), and largely focussed on felids (24%) and canids (25%). Half (50%) of the studies reported responses to wildfire, and nearly one third concerned prescribed (management) fires. There were no clear, general responses of predators to fire, nor relationships with geographic area, biome or life-history traits (e.g. body mass, hunting strategy and diet). Responses varied considerably between species. Analysis of species for which at least three effect sizes had been reported in the literature revealed that red foxes Vulpes vulpes mostly responded positively to fire (e.g. higher abundance in burned compared to unburned areas) and eastern racers Coluber constrictor negatively, with variances overlapping zero only slightly for both species. Our systematic review and meta-analysis revealed strong variation in predator responses to fire, and major geographic and taxonomic knowledge gaps. Varied responses of predator species to fire likely depend on ecosystem context. Consistent reporting of ongoing monitoring and management experiments is required to improve understanding of the mechanisms driving predator responses to fire, and any broader effects (e.g. trophic interactions). The divergent responses of species in our study suggest that adaptive, context-specific management of predator-fire relationships is required.