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Brownstein CG, Millet GY, Thomas K. Neuromuscular responses to fatiguing locomotor exercise. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2021; 231:e13533. [PMID: 32627930 DOI: 10.1111/apha.13533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Over the last two decades, an abundance of research has explored the impact of fatiguing locomotor exercise on the neuromuscular system. Neurostimulation techniques have been implemented prior to and following locomotor exercise tasks of a wide variety of intensities, durations, and modes. These techniques have allowed for the assessment of alterations occurring within the central nervous system and the muscle, while techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation and spinal electrical stimulation have permitted further segmentalization of locomotor exercise-induced changes along the motor pathway. To this end, the present review provides a comprehensive synopsis of the literature pertaining to neuromuscular responses to locomotor exercise. Sections of the review were divided to discuss neuromuscular responses to maximal, severe, heavy and moderate intensity, high-intensity intermittent exercise, and differences in neuromuscular responses between exercise modalities. During maximal and severe intensity exercise, alterations in neuromuscular function reside primarily within the muscle. Although post-exercise reductions in voluntary activation following maximal and severe intensity exercise are generally modest, several studies have observed alterations occurring at the cortical and/or spinal level. During prolonged heavy and moderate intensity exercise, impairments in contractile function are attenuated with respect to severe intensity exercise, but are still widely observed. While reductions in voluntary activation are greater during heavy and moderate intensity exercise, the specific alterations occurring within the central nervous system remain unclear. Further work utilizing stimulation techniques during exercise and integrating new and emerging techniques such as high-density electromyography is warranted to provide further insight into neuromuscular responses to locomotor exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum G. Brownstein
- Inter‐University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology Université LyonUJM‐Saint‐Etienne Saint‐Etienne France
| | - Guillaume Y. Millet
- Inter‐University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology Université LyonUJM‐Saint‐Etienne Saint‐Etienne France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF) France
| | - Kevin Thomas
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences Northumbria University Newcastle upon Tyne United Kingdom
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2
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Zoppirolli C, Bortolan L, Schena F, Pellegrini B. Double poling kinematic changes during the course of a long-distance race: effect of performance level. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:863-872. [PMID: 32138604 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1736246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to evaluate the changes in double poling (DP) kinematics due to a long-distance cross-country skiing race in athletes with different performance levels. A total of 100 cross-country skiers, belonging to 10 different performance groups, were filmed on flat terrain 7 and 55 km after the start line, during a 58-km classical race. Cycle velocity, frequency and length decreased from the best to the lower-ranked group, while duty cycle increased (all P <.001). Between track sections, cycle velocity and length decreased, duty cycles increased (all P <.001) while frequency was unaltered (P =.782). Group*section interactions resulted for cycle velocity (P =.005). Considering all the participants together, % change in cycle velocity between sections correlated with % change in length and duty cycle (all P <.001). Thus i) skiers in better groups showed longer and more frequent cycles as well as shorter duty cycles than skiers in slower groups; ii) throughout the race all the groups maintained the same cycle frequency while decreasing cycle velocity and length; iii) better groups showed a lower reduction in cycle velocity. Individually, a low reduction in cycle velocity during the race related to the capacity to maintain long cycles and short duty cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Department, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Bortolan
- CeRiSM, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Department, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Federico Schena
- CeRiSM, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Department, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Barbara Pellegrini
- CeRiSM, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.,Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Department, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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3
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Millet GY, Martin V, Temesi J. The role of the nervous system in neuromuscular fatigue induced by ultra-endurance exercise. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2018; 43:1151-1157. [DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2018-0161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ultra-endurance events are not a recent development but they have only become very popular in the last 2 decades, particularly ultramarathons run on trails. The present paper reviews the role of the central nervous system in neuromuscular fatigue induced by ultra-endurance exercise. Large decreases in voluntary activation are systematically found in ultra-endurance running but are attenuated in ultra-endurance cycling for comparable intensity and duration. This indirectly suggests that afferent feedback, rather than neurobiological changes within the central nervous system, is determinant in the amount of central fatigue produced. Whether this is due to inhibition from type III and IV afferent fibres induced by inflammation, disfacilitation of Ia afferent fibers owing to repeated muscle stretching or other mechanisms still needs to be determined. Sleep deprivation per se does not seem to play a significant role in central fatigue although it still affects performance by elevating ratings of perceived exertion. The kinetics of central fatigue and recovery, the influence of muscle group (knee extensors vs plantar flexors) on central deficit as well as the limitations related to studies on central fatigue in ultra-endurance exercise are also discussed in the present article. To date, no study has quantified the contribution of spinal modulations to central fatigue in ultra-endurance events. Future investigations utilizing spinal stimulation (i.e., thoracic stimulation) must be conducted to assess the role of changes in motoneuronal excitability on the observed central fatigue. Recovery after ultra-endurance events and the effect of sex on neuromuscular fatigue must also be studied further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Y. Millet
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Vincent Martin
- Université Clermont Auvergne, AME2P, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - John Temesi
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
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4
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Ohtonen O, Lindinger SJ, Göpfert C, Rapp W, Linnamo V. Changes in biomechanics of skiing at maximal velocity caused by simulated 20-km skiing race using V2 skating technique. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2017; 28:479-486. [PMID: 28508404 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated how the fatigue caused by a 20-km simulated skating cross-country skiing race on snow affects the final spurt performance from a biomechanical perspective. Subjects performed a 100-m maximal skiing trial before and at the end of the simulated race. Cycle characteristics, ground reaction forces from skis and poles, and muscle activity from eight muscles were recorded during each trial. Results showed that subjects were in a fatigued state after the simulated race manifested by 11.6% lower skiing speed (P<.01). The lower skiing speed was related to an 8.0% decrease in cycle rate (P<.01), whereas cycle length was slightly decreased (tendency). In temporal patterns, relative kick time was increased (10.9%, P<.01) while relative poling time was slightly decreased (tendency). Vertical ski force production decreased by 8.3% while pole force production decreased by 26.0% (both, P<.01). Muscle activation was generally decreased in upper (39.2%) and lower body (30.7%) (both, P<.01). Together these findings show different responses to fatigue in the upper and lower body. In ski forces, fatigue was observed via longer force production times while force production levels decreased only slightly. Pole forces showed equal force production times in the fatigued state while force production level decreased threefold compared to the ski forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Ohtonen
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
| | - S J Lindinger
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - C Göpfert
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland.,Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - W Rapp
- Department of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - V Linnamo
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland
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5
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Carroll TJ, Taylor JL, Gandevia SC. Recovery of central and peripheral neuromuscular fatigue after exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2017; 122:1068-1076. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00775.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Revised: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Sustained physical exercise leads to a reduced capacity to produce voluntary force that typically outlasts the exercise bout. This “fatigue” can be due both to impaired muscle function, termed “peripheral fatigue,” and a reduction in the capacity of the central nervous system to activate muscles, termed “central fatigue.” In this review we consider the factors that determine the recovery of voluntary force generating capacity after various types of exercise. After brief, high-intensity exercise there is typically a rapid restitution of force that is due to recovery of central fatigue (typically within 2 min) and aspects of peripheral fatigue associated with excitation-contraction coupling and reperfusion of muscles (typically within 3–5 min). Complete recovery of muscle function may be incomplete for some hours, however, due to prolonged impairment in intracellular Ca2+ release or sensitivity. After low-intensity exercise of long duration, voluntary force typically shows rapid, partial, recovery within the first few minutes, due largely to recovery of the central, neural component. However, the ability to voluntarily activate muscles may not recover completely within 30 min after exercise. Recovery of peripheral fatigue contributes comparatively little to the fast initial force restitution and is typically incomplete for at least 20–30 min. Work remains to identify what factors underlie the prolonged central fatigue that usually accompanies long-duration single joint and locomotor exercise and to document how the time course of neuromuscular recovery is affected by exercise intensity and duration in locomotor exercise. Such information could be useful to enhance rehabilitation and sports performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. J. Carroll
- Centre for Sensorimotor Performance, School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland; and
| | - J. L. Taylor
- Neuroscience Research Australia and University of New South Wales
| | - S. C. Gandevia
- Neuroscience Research Australia and University of New South Wales
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6
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Boccia G, Dardanello D, Zoppirolli C, Bortolan L, Cescon C, Schneebeli A, Vernillo G, Schena F, Rainoldi A, Pellegrini B. Central and peripheral fatigue in knee and elbow extensor muscles after a long-distance cross-country ski race. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2016; 27:945-955. [PMID: 27293016 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Although elbow extensors (EE) have a great role in cross-country skiing (XC) propulsion, previous studies on neuromuscular fatigue in long-distance XC have investigated only knee extensor (KE) muscles. In order to investigate the origin and effects of fatigue induced by long-distance XC race, 16 well-trained XC skiers were tested before and after a 56-km classical technique race. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVC) and rate of force development (RFD) were measured for both KE and EE. Furthermore, electrically evoked double twitch during MVC and at rest were measured. MVC decreased more in KE (-13%) than in EE (-6%, P = 0.016), whereas the peak RFD decreased only in EE (-26%, P = 0.02) but not in KE. The two muscles showed similar decrease in voluntary activation (KE -5.0%, EE -4.8%, P = 0.61) and of double twitch amplitude (KE -5%, EE -6%, P = 0.44). A long-distance XC race differently affected the neuromuscular function of lower and upper limbs muscles. Specifically, although the strength loss was greater for lower limbs, the capacity to produce force in short time was more affected in the upper limbs. Nevertheless, both KE and EE showed central and peripheral fatigue, suggesting that the origins of the strength impairments were multifactorial for the two muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Boccia
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,Motor Science Research Centre, School of Exercise & Sport Sciences, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - D Dardanello
- Motor Science Research Centre, School of Exercise & Sport Sciences, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - C Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neurosciences, B, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - L Bortolan
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neurosciences, B, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - C Cescon
- Rehabilitation Research Laboratory, Department of Business Economics, Health and Social Sciences University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), Manno, Switzerland
| | - A Schneebeli
- Rehabilitation Research Laboratory, Department of Business Economics, Health and Social Sciences University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), Manno, Switzerland
| | - G Vernillo
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - F Schena
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neurosciences, B, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - A Rainoldi
- Motor Science Research Centre, School of Exercise & Sport Sciences, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - B Pellegrini
- CeRiSM Research Center "Sport, Mountain, and Health", Rovereto, Italy.,School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neurosciences, B, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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7
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FROYD CHRISTIAN, BELTRAMI FERNANDOGABE, MILLET GUILLAUMEY, NOAKES TIMOTHYD. Central Regulation and Neuromuscular Fatigue during Exercise of Different Durations. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2016; 48:1024-32. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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8
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Morel B, Clémençon M, Rota S, Millet GY, Bishop DJ, Brosseau O, Rouffet DM, Hautier CA. Contraction velocity influence the magnitude and etiology of neuromuscular fatigue during repeated maximal contractions. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014; 25:e432-41. [DOI: 10.1111/sms.12358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B. Morel
- Center of Research and Innovation on Sport; University of Lyon 1; Villeurbanne France
| | - M. Clémençon
- Center of Research and Innovation on Sport; University of Lyon 1; Villeurbanne France
| | - S. Rota
- Center of Research and Innovation on Sport; University of Lyon 1; Villeurbanne France
| | - G. Y. Millet
- Human Performance Laboratory; University of Calgary; Calgary Alberta Canada
| | - D. J. Bishop
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living; Victoria University; Melbourne Victoria Australia
| | - O. Brosseau
- Maison des Consultants - Médipôle; Bourgoin-Jailleux France
| | - D. M. Rouffet
- Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living; Victoria University; Melbourne Victoria Australia
- Australian Institute of Sport; Belconnen Australian Capital Territory Australia
| | - C. A. Hautier
- Center of Research and Innovation on Sport; University of Lyon 1; Villeurbanne France
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9
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Marina M, Rios M, Torrado P, Busquets A, Angulo-Barroso R. Force-time course parameters and force fatigue model during an intermittent fatigue protocol in motorcycle race riders. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2014; 25:406-16. [PMID: 24730983 DOI: 10.1111/sms.12220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Fatigue in forearm muscles may be critical for motorcycle riders in relation to performance and forearm disorders. Force-time course parameters were examined to better characterize the reduction in the maximal force generating capacity (MVC) during an intermittent fatigue protocol (IFP) specifically designed for motorcycle riders. Also, a mathematical force fatigue model is proposed. Forty motorcyclists (aged 27.6 ± 6.8 years) performed an IFP that simulated the braking gesture and posture of a rider. Fatigue was confirmed by a 40% decrement of the normalized MVC in comparison with basal value. Contraction time increased in comparison with basal condition (P ≤ 0.034). Relaxation kinetics presented two phases: (a) a pre-fatigue phase where half relaxation time (HRTraw ) and normalized (HRTnor ) decreased (P ≤ 0.013) while relaxation rate (RRraw ) remained unchanged; and (b) a fatiguing phase where HRTraw , HRTnor increased and RRraw decreased (P ≤ 0.047). Normalized RRraw (RRnor ) declined progressively (P ≤ 0.016). The proposed nonlinear force fatigue model confirmed a satisfactory adjustment (R(2) = 0.977 ± 0.018). This mathematical expression derived three patterns of force fatigue: three-phase, exponential and linear, representing 70%, 13%, and 17% of the participants, respectively. Overall, these results provided further support to force fatigue theoretical and applied proposals.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Marina
- INEFC Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Rios
- Facultad Biologia (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - A Busquets
- School of Health Science, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Mataro, Spain
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10
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Blacker SD, Fallowfield JL, Willems MET. Intra- and interday reliability of voluntary and electrically stimulated isometric contractions of the quadriceps femoris. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2013; 23:886-91. [PMID: 23571022 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2013.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Revised: 02/01/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The reliability of voluntary and electrically stimulated isometric contractions of m. quadriceps femoris of male participants (n=10; age 30±8years; height 1.79±0.05m; body mass 79.4±8.3kg) was investigated using ratio limits of agreement (LoA) on a time scale common to examine recovery from muscle damaging exercise. No systematic changes in reliability occurred over time (baseline versus 2, 24, 48, and 72h). Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) and interpolated twitch technique (ITT) showed no mean bias (P>0.05) with 95% LoA of ±12.7 and ±5.4, respectively. Resting twitch and potentiated doublet peak force showed no mean bias (P>0.05). However, 95% LoA were smaller for the doublet (±13.9) than the twitch (±32.0). Twitch and doublet rates showed similar trends. Ratio of low (20Hz) to high (50Hz) frequency forces showed no mean bias (P>0.05) and 95% LoA of (±9.2). However, there was significant mean bias (P<0.05) and wider 95% LoA for peak force, contraction and relaxation parameters of the low and high frequency forces. In conclusion, MVC, ITT, potentiated doublet and the ratio of low to high frequency forces are recommended to most reliably examine functional muscle recovery between 2 and 72h after damaging exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- S D Blacker
- University of Chichester, Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, West Sussex, UK.
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11
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Millet GY. Can neuromuscular fatigue explain running strategies and performance in ultra-marathons?: the flush model. Sports Med 2011; 41:489-506. [PMID: 21615190 DOI: 10.2165/11588760-000000000-00000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
While the industrialized world adopts a largely sedentary lifestyle, ultra-marathon running races have become increasingly popular in the last few years in many countries. The ability to run long distances is also considered to have played a role in human evolution. This makes the issue of ultra-long distance physiology important. In the ability to run multiples of 10 km (up to 1000 km in one stage), fatigue resistance is critical. Fatigue is generally defined as strength loss (i.e. a decrease in maximal voluntary contraction [MVC]), which is known to be dependent on the type of exercise. Critical task variables include the intensity and duration of the activity, both of which are very specific to ultra-endurance sports. They also include the muscle groups involved and the type of muscle contraction, two variables that depend on the sport under consideration. The first part of this article focuses on the central and peripheral causes of the alterations to neuromuscular function that occur in ultra-marathon running. Neuromuscular function evaluation requires measurements of MVCs and maximal electrical/magnetic stimulations; these provide an insight into the factors in the CNS and the muscles implicated in fatigue. However, such measurements do not necessarily predict how muscle function may influence ultra-endurance running and whether this has an effect on speed regulation during a real competition (i.e. when pacing strategies are involved). In other words, the nature of the relationship between fatigue as measured using maximal contractions/stimulation and submaximal performance limitation/regulation is questionable. To investigate this issue, we are suggesting a holistic model in the second part of this article. This model can be applied to all endurance activities, but is specifically adapted to ultra-endurance running: the flush model. This model has the following four components: (i) the ball-cock (or buoy), which can be compared with the rate of perceived exertion, and can increase or decrease based on (ii) the filling rate and (iii) the water evacuated through the waste pipe, and (iv) a security reserve that allows the subject to prevent physiological damage. We are suggesting that central regulation is not only based on afferent signals arising from the muscles and peripheral organs, but is also dependent on peripheral fatigue and spinal/supraspinal inhibition (or disfacilitation) since these alterations imply a higher central drive for a given power output. This holistic model also explains how environmental conditions, sleep deprivation/mental fatigue, pain-killers or psychostimulants, cognitive or nutritional strategies may affect ultra-running performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Y Millet
- Université de Lyon, and Laboratoire dePhysiologie de l’Exercice (EA 4338), Médecine du Sport-Myologie, Hôpital Bellevue,F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France.
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12
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Electrical stimulation for testing neuromuscular function: from sport to pathology. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 111:2489-500. [PMID: 21590274 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-011-1996-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Accepted: 05/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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13
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Cignetti F, Schena F, Mottet D, Rouard A. A limit-cycle model of leg movements in cross-country skiing and its adjustments with fatigue. Hum Mov Sci 2010; 29:590-604. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2010.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2009] [Revised: 03/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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14
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Place N, Yamada T, Bruton JD, Westerblad H. Muscle fatigue: from observations in humans to underlying mechanisms studied in intact single muscle fibres. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 110:1-15. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1480-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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15
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ROSS EMMAZ, GREGSON WARREN, WILLIAMS KAREN, ROBERTSON COLIN, GEORGE KEITH. Muscle Contractile Function and Neural Control after Repetitive Endurance Cycling. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2010; 42:206-12. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3181b07a18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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16
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Vesterinen V, Mikkola J, Nummela A, Hynynen E, Häkkinen K. Fatigue in a simulated cross-country skiing sprint competition. J Sports Sci 2009; 27:1069-77. [PMID: 19847690 DOI: 10.1080/02640410903081860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess fatigue during a simulated cross-country skiing sprint competition based on skating technique. Sixteen male skiers performed a 30-m maximal skiing speed test and four 850-m heats with roller skies on a tartan track, separated by 20 min recovery between heats. Physiological variables (heart rate, blood lactate concentration, oxygen consumption), skiing velocity, and electromyography (EMG) were recorded at the beginning of the heats and at the end of each 200-m lap during the heats. Maximal skiing velocity and EMG were measured in the speed test before the simulation. No differences were observed in skiing velocity, EMG or metabolic variables between the heats. The end (820-850 m) velocities and sum-iEMG of the triceps brachii and vastus lateralis in the four heats were significantly lower than the skiing velocity and sum-iEMG in the speed test. A significant correlation was observed between mean oxygen consumption and the change in skiing velocity over the four heats. Each single heat induced considerable neuromuscular fatigue, but recovery between the heats was long enough to prevent accumulation of fatigue. The results suggest that the skiers with a high aerobic power were less fatigued throughout the simulation.
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17
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Oliveira ADSC, Caputo F, Gonçalves M, Denadai BS. Heavy-intensity aerobic exercise affects the isokinetic torque and functional but not conventional hamstrings:quadriceps ratios. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2009; 19:1079-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2008.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2008] [Revised: 10/21/2008] [Accepted: 10/21/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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18
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Effects of fatigue on inter-cycle variability in cross-country skiing. J Biomech 2009; 42:1452-1459. [PMID: 19446817 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2008] [Revised: 03/12/2009] [Accepted: 04/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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19
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Effect of fatigue on double pole kinematics in sprint cross-country skiing. Hum Mov Sci 2009; 28:85-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2008.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2007] [Revised: 03/13/2008] [Accepted: 05/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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20
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Girard O, Lattier G, Maffiuletti NA, Micallef JP, Millet GP. Neuromuscular fatigue during a prolonged intermittent exercise: Application to tennis. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2007; 18:1038-46. [PMID: 17611122 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2007.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2007] [Revised: 04/24/2007] [Accepted: 05/11/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The time course of alteration in neuromuscular function of the knee extensor muscles was characterized during a prolonged intermittent exercise. Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) and surface EMG activity of both vastii were measured during brief interruptions before (T(0)), during (30, 60, 90, 120, 150 and 180min: T(30), T(60), T(90), T(120), T(150), T(180)) and 30min after (T(+30)) a 3h tennis match in 12 trained players. M-wave and twitch contractile properties were analyzed following single stimuli. Short tetani at 20Hz and 80Hz were also applied to six subjects at T(0) and T(180). Significant reductions in MVC (P<0.05; -9%) and electromyographic activity normalized to the M wave for both vastii (P<0.01) occurred with fatigue at T(180). No significant changes in M-wave duration and amplitude nor in twitch contractile properties were observed. The ratio between the torques evoked by 20Hz and 80Hz stimulation declined significantly (P<0.001; -12%) after exercise. Central activation failure and alterations in excitation-contraction coupling are probable mechanisms contributing to the moderate impairment of the neuromuscular function during prolonged tennis playing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Girard
- UPRES - EA 2991, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Montpellier, France.
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Takashima W, Ishii K, Takizawa K, Yamaguchi T, Nosaka K. Muscle damage and soreness following a 50-km cross-country ski race. Eur J Sport Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/17461390701197833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Ross EZ, Middleton N, Shave R, George K, Nowicky A. Corticomotor excitability contributes to neuromuscular fatigue following marathon running in man. Exp Physiol 2007; 92:417-26. [PMID: 17099060 DOI: 10.1113/expphysiol.2006.035972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
It is unknown whether changes in corticomotor excitability follow prolonged exercise in healthy humans. Furthermore, the role of supraspinal fatigue in decrements of force production and voluntary activation following prolonged exercise has not been established. This study investigated peripheral and central fatigue after a marathon (42.2 km) on a treadmill. Isometric ankle dorsiflexion force and electromyographic responses of the tibialis anterior in response to magnetic stimulation of the peroneal nerve (PNMS) and the motor cortex (TMS) were measured before, immediately after, 4 and 24 h post-marathon (MAR) in nine volunteers (mean +/- s.d. completion time, 208 +/- 22 min). Maximal voluntary contraction decreased by 18 +/- 7% immediately after MAR (P = 0.009) and remained significantly decreased after 4 h. The amplitude of the evoked response to TMS, but not to PNMS, was depressed immediately post-MAR by 57 +/- 25% (P = 0.04). Potentiated resting twitch force was reduced in response to both TMS and PNMS post-MAR (71 +/- 8 and 35 +/- 2% decrease, P = 0.035 and 0.037, respectively), and voluntary activation was reduced to 61.9 +/- 18% immediately post-MAR (P < 0.05). All measures had returned to baseline values after 24 h. These results suggest that fatigue was attributable to both a disturbance of the contractile apparatus within the muscle and submaximal output from the motor cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Z Ross
- Centre for Sports Medicine and Human Performance, Brunel University, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK.
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Zory R, Millet G, Schena F, Bortolan L, Rouard A. Fatigue Induced by a Cross-Country Skiing KO Sprint. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38:2144-50. [PMID: 17146322 DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000235354.86189.7e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aims of the present study were 1) to analyze whether the KO sprint simulation induced a phenomenon of fatigue of upper and lower limbs and 2) if there was any fatigue, to determine its origin. METHODS Seven elite male skiers were tested before and after a simulation of KO sprints consisting of three 1200-m laps separated by 12 min of recovery. Surface electromyographic activity and force obtained under voluntary and electrically evoked contractions (single twitch) on knee-extensor muscles were analyzed to distinguish neural adaptations from contractile changes. A maximal power output test of the upper limbs was also performed. RESULTS During the last lap, the final sprint velocity was significantly lower than during the first lap. After the KO sprint, knee-extensor voluntary (-9.8 +/- 9.5%) and evoked (-16.2 +/- 11.9%) isometric force and upper-limb power output (-11.0 +/- 9.3%) and force (-11.3 +/- 8.7%) significantly decreased, whereas the blood lactate concentration increased to 11.6 mM. On the other hand, no changes were seen in RMS measurement during maximal voluntary contractions, RMS normalized by M-wave amplitude, or M-wave characteristics. CONCLUSION Changes in performance, lactate concentration, knee-extensor strength, and upper-limb power indicated that the KO sprint test led the skiers to a state of fatigue. On lower-limb muscles, the decrease of knee-extensor strength was exclusively caused by peripheral fatigue, which was at least in part attributable to a failure of the excitation-contraction coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Zory
- Laboratoire de Modélisation des Activités Sportives, Bâtiment Beaufortain, Université de Savoie, Savoie, France.
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Weir JP, Beck TW, Cramer JT, Housh TJ. Is fatigue all in your head? A critical review of the central governor model. Br J Sports Med 2006; 40:573-86; discussion 586. [PMID: 16799110 PMCID: PMC2564297 DOI: 10.1136/bjsm.2005.023028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The central governor model has recently been proposed as a general model to explain the phenomenon of fatigue. It proposes that the subconscious brain regulates power output (pacing strategy) by modulating motor unit recruitment to preserve whole body homoeostasis and prevent catastrophic physiological failure such as rigor. In this model, the word fatigue is redefined from a term that describes an exercise decline in the ability to produce force and power to one of sensation or emotion. The underpinnings of the central governor model are the refutation of what is described variously as peripheral fatigue, limitations models, and the cardiovascular/anaerobic/catastrophe model. This argument centres on the inability of lactic acid models of fatigue to adequately explain fatigue. In this review, it is argued that a variety of peripheral factors other than lactic acid are known to compromise muscle force and power and that these effects may protect against "catastrophe". Further, it is shown that a variety of studies indicate that fatigue induced decreases in performance cannot be adequately explained by the central governor model. Instead, it is suggested that the concept of task dependency, in which the mechanisms of fatigue vary depending on the specific exercise stressor, is a more comprehensive and defensible model of fatigue. This model includes aspects of both central and peripheral contributions to fatigue, and the relative importance of each probably varies with the type of exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Weir
- Osteopathic Medical Center, Des Moines University, Des Moines, IA 50312, USA.
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Abstract
Neuromuscular fatigue has traditionally been examined using isolated forms of either isometric, concentric or eccentric actions. However, none of these actions are naturally occurring in human (or animal) ground locomotion. The basic muscle function is defined as the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), where the preactivated muscle is first stretched (eccentric action) and then followed by the shortening (concentric) action. As the SSC taxes the skeletal muscles very strongly mechanically, its influence on the reflex activation becomes apparent and very different from the isolated forms of muscle actions mentioned above. The ground contact phases of running, jumping and hopping etc. are examples of the SSC for leg extensor muscles; similar phases can also be found for the upper-body activities. Consequently, it is normal and expected that the fatigue phenomena should be explored during SSC activities. The fatigue responses of repeated SSC actions are very versatile and complex because the fatigue does not depend only on the metabolic loading, which is reportedly different among muscle actions. The complexity of SSC fatigue is well reflected by the recovery patterns of many neuromechanical parameters. The basic pattern of SSC fatigue response (e.g. when using the complete exhaustion model of hopping or jumping) is the bimodality showing an immediate reduction in performance during exercise, quick recovery within 1-2 hours, followed by a secondary reduction, which may often show the lowest values on the second day post-exercise when the symptoms of muscle soreness/damage are also greatest. The full recovery may take 4-8 days depending on the parameter and on the severity of exercise. Each subject may have their own time-dependent bimodality curve. Based on the reviewed literature, it is recommended that the fatigue protocol is 'completely' exhaustive to reduce the important influence of inter-subject variability in the fatigue responses. The bimodality concept is especially apparent for stretch reflex responses, measured either in passive or active conditions. Interestingly, the reflex responses follow parallel changes with some of the pure mechanical parameters, such as yielding of the braking force during an initial ground contact of running or hopping. The mechanism of SSC fatigue and especially the bimodal response of performance deterioration and its recovery are often difficult to explain. The immediate post-exercise reduction in most of the measured parameters and their partial recovery 1-2 hours post-exercise can be explained primarily to be due to metabolic fatigue induced by exercise. The secondary reduction in these parameters takes place when the muscle soreness is highest. The literature gives several suggestions including the possible structural damage of not only the extrafusal muscle fibres, but also the intrafusal ones. Temporary changes in structural proteins and muscle-tendon interaction may be related to the fatigue-induced force reduction. Neural adjustments in the supraspinal level could naturally be operative, although many studies quoted in this article emphasise more the influences of exhaustive SSC fatigue on the fusimotor-muscle spindle system. It is, however, still puzzling why the functional recovery lasts several days after the disappearance of muscle soreness. Unfortunately, this and many other possible mechanisms need more thorough testing in animal models provided that the SSC actions can be truly performed as they appear in normal human locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Nicol
- Department of Physiology of Physical Activity, UPRES-EA 3285, University of the Mediterranean, Marseilles, France
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Place N, Lepers R, Deley G, Millet GY. Time Course of Neuromuscular Alterations during a Prolonged Running Exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36:1347-56. [PMID: 15292743 DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000135786.22996.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study investigated the time course of contractile and neural alterations of knee extensor (KE) muscles during a long-duration running exercise. METHODS Nine well-trained triathletes and endurance runners sustained 55% of their maximal aerobic velocity (MAV) on a motorized treadmill for a period of 5 h. Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), maximal voluntary activation level (%VA), and electrically evoked contractions (single and tetanic stimulations) of KE muscles were evaluated before, after each hour of exercise during short (10 min) interruptions, and at the end of the 5-h period. Oxygen uptake was also measured at regular intervals during the exercise. RESULTS Reductions of MVC and %VA were significant after the 4th hour of exercise and reached -28% (P < 0.001) and -16% (P < 0.01) respectively at the end of the exercise. The reduction in MVC was highly correlated with the decline of %VA (r = 0.98, P < 0.001). M-wave was also altered after the fourth hour of exercise (P < 0.05) in both vastus lateralis and rectus femoris muscles. Peak twitch was potentiated at the end of the exercise (+18%, P = 0.01); 20- and 80-Hz maximal tetanic forces were not altered by the exercise. Oxygen uptake increased linearly during the running period (+18% at 5 h, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION These findings suggest that KE maximal voluntary force generating capability is depressed in the final stages of a 5-h running exercise. Central activation failure and alterations in muscle action potential transmission were important mechanisms contributing to the impairment of the neuromuscular function during prolonged running.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Place
- INSERM ERM 207 Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France.
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Millet GY, Lepers R. Alterations of Neuromuscular Function After Prolonged Running, Cycling and Skiing Exercises. Sports Med 2004; 34:105-16. [PMID: 14965189 DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200434020-00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that impairment of performance resulting from muscle fatigue differs according to the types of contraction involved, the muscular groups tested and the exercise duration/intensity. Depending on these variables, strength loss with fatigue can originate from several sites from the motor cortex through to contractile elements. This has been termed 'task dependency of muscle fatigue'. Only recently have studies focused on the origin of muscle fatigue after prolonged exercise lasting 30 minutes to several hours. Central fatigue has been shown to contribute to muscle fatigue during long-distance running by using different methods such as the twitch interpolation technique, the ratio of the electromyogram (EMG) signal during maximal voluntary contraction normalised to the M-wave amplitude or the comparison of the forces achieved with voluntary- and electrically-evoked contractions. Some central activation deficit has also been observed for knee extensor muscles in cycling but central fatigue after activities inducing low muscular damage was attenuated compared with running. While supraspinal fatigue cannot be ruled out, it can be suggested that spinal adaptation, such as inhibition from type III and IV group afferents or disfacilitation from muscle spindles, contributes to the reduced neural drive after prolonged exercise. It has been shown that after a 30 km run, individuals with the greatest knee extensor muscle strength loss experienced a significant activation deficit. However, central fatigue alone cannot explain the entire strength loss after prolonged exercise. Alterations of neuromuscular propagation, excitation-contraction coupling failure and modifications of the intrinsic capability of force production may also be involved. Electrically-evoked contractions and associated EMG can help to characterise peripheral fatigue. The purpose of this review is to further examine the central and peripheral mechanisms contributing to strength loss after prolonged running, cycling and skiing exercises.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Y Millet
- Research Group Physiology and Physiopathology of Exercise and Handicap, University of Saint-Etienne, Saint-Etienne, France.
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