Organization of reconstituted lipoprotein MexA onto supported lipid membrane

MexA, a periplasmic component of OprM-MexA-MexB tripartite multidrug efflux pump from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, is natively anchored via its fatty acid in the bacteria inner membrane protruding into the periplasm. We used supported lipid bilayer (SLB) to attach the protein to a single leaflet mimicking its perisplamic orientation. For that purpose, we studied the solubilization of DOPC lipid bilayer supported on silica surface with beta-octyl glucoside (betaOG). First we showed that SLBs resist to betaOG concentrations that usually solubilize liposomes. Native form of MexA was directly inserted in the outer leaflet at (betaOG concentrations in a range of 20-25 mM). Second, observations by cryo-electron microscopy (cryoEM) revealed a dense protein layer attached to the surface corresponding to a 13-nm layer of MexA proteins. Analysis of protein densities allows proposing a schematic organization of native MexA inserted in lipid membrane. This structural organization provides further insights with respect to the partially solved structure of the soluble form.

The membrane lateral domain approach in the studies of lipid-protein interaction of GPI-anchored bovine erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase

A novel membrane lateral domain approach was used to test whether the activity of the membrane-bound enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) depends on the local properties (e.g. local lipid ordering) of bovine erythrocyte-ghost membrane. This issue has an additional aspect of interest due to an alternative mode of insertion of AChE molecules into the membrane by the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. In our experiments the lateral domain membrane structure was influenced by temperature and by the addition of n-butanol, and was quantitatively characterized using the method of EPR spectrum decomposition. The activity of AChE was determined by a colorimetric assay in the same samples. The results show that the membrane stabilizes the conformation of the membrane-bound AChE compared to the isolated AChE. In addition, a correlation was observed between the temperature dependence of order parameter of the most-ordered domain type and the activity of AChE. Therefore, our findings support the idea that the function of GPI proteins can be modulated by the lipid bilayer. Based on the assumption that the overall activity of AChE depends on the order parameters of particular domain types as well as their proportions, two models for AChE activity were introduced. In the first, a random distribution of enzyme molecules was proposed, and in the second, localization of enzyme molecules in a single (cholesterol-rich) domain type was assumed. Better agreement between measured and calculated activity values speaks in favor of the second model.

Rafts, little caves and large potholes: how lipid structure interacts with membrane proteins to create functionally diverse membrane environments

This chapter reviews how diverse lipid microdomains form in the membrane and partition proteins into different functional units that regulate cell trafficking, signalling and movement. We will concentrate upon five major issues: 1. the diversity of lipid structure that produces diverse microenvironments into which different subsets of proteins partition; 2. why ordered lipid domains exclude proteins, and the conditions required for select subsets of proteins to enter these domains; 3. the coupling of the inner and outer leaflets within ordered microdomains; 4. the effect of ordered lipid domains upon membrane properties including curvature and hydrophobicity that affect membrane fission, fusion and extension of filopodia; 5. the biological effects of these structural constraints; in particular how the properties of these domains combine to provide a very different signalling, trafficking and membrane fusion environment to that found in disordered (fluid mosaic) membrane. In addressing these problems, the review draws upon studies ranging from molecular dynamic modelling of lipid interactions, through physical studies of model membrane systems to structural and biological studies of whole cells, examining in the process problems inherent in visualising and purifying these microdomains. While the diversity of structure and function of ordered lipid microdomains is emphasised, some general roles emerge. In particular, the basis for having quite different, non-interacting ordered lipid domains on the same membrane is evident in the diversity of lipid structure and plays a key role in sorting signalling systems. The exclusion of ordered membrane from coated pits, and hence rapid endocytosis, is suggested to underlie the ability of highly ordered domains to establish stable secondary signalling systems required, for instance, in T cell receptor, insulin and neurotrophin signalling.

GPI-anchored protein cleavage in the regulation of transmembrane signals

The structure of covalently-linked glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors of membrane proteins displayed on the cell surface is described. Evidence of how the GPI-anchors are sorted into membrane rafts in the plasma membrane is reviewed. Proteins are released by hydrolysis of the linkage to the GPI anchor and phospholipases from different sources involved in this process are characterised. The regulation of protein conformation and function resulting from phospholipase cleavage of the GPI anchor is discussed in the context of its role in signal transduction by insulin. In this signalling system, re-distribution of critical membrane components, including GPI-anchored proteins and non-receptor tyrosine kinases, between different raft domains appears to play a central role in the signal transduction pathway.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins: structure, function, and cleavage by phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C

A wide variety of proteins are tethered by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor to the extracellular face of eukaryotic plasma membranes, where they are involved in a number of functions ranging from enzymatic catalysis to adhesion. The exact function of the GPI anchor has been the subject of much speculation. It appears to act as an intracellular signal targeting proteins to the apical surface in polarized cells. GPI-anchored proteins are sorted into sphingolipid- and cholesterol-rich microdomains, known as lipid rafts, before transport to the membrane surface. Their localization in raft microdomains may explain the involvement of this class of proteins in signal transduction processes. Substantial evidence suggests that GPI-anchored proteins may interact closely with the bilayer surface, so that their functions may be modulated by the biophysical properties of the membrane. The presence of the anchor appears to impose conformational restraints, and its removal may alter the catalytic properties and structure of a GPI-anchored protein. Release of GPI-anchored proteins from the cell surface by specific phospholipases may play a key role in regulation of their surface expression and functional properties. Reconstitution of GPI-anchored proteins into bilayers of defined phospholipids provides a powerful tool with which to explore the interactions of these proteins with the membrane and investigate how bilayer properties modulate their structure, function, and cleavage by phospholipases.

Isolation and unique composition of purified head plasma membrane from rooster sperm

The structure, composition, and function of membranes from organelles of mammalian spermatozoa differ from each other and from the sperm's plasma membrane. Avian sperm studies have suffered from the lack of a technique to isolate these various membranes, which the current study now provides. Nitrogen cavitation and differential centrifugation separated head plasma membranes (HPM) of rooster sperm from sperm debris, acrosomal membranes, and mitochondrial membranes and characterized these membranes enzymatically and microscopically. The HPM was enriched in acid phosphatase (marker enzyme for HPM; 1,814.81 +/- 470.43 micromol phosphate released/microg protein vs. 868.53 +/- 75.55 for whole semen; a 202.5 +/- 37.8% enrichment, mean +/- SE, P < 0.001), with less (P < 0.001) mitochondrial and acrosomal enzyme activity. The mitochondrial fraction had 515.1 +/- 167.6% more succinate dehydrogenase activity (marker for mitochondria, P < 0.001) and the acrosomal fraction had 315.4 +/- 61.2% more acetylglucosaminidase activity (marker for acrosome, P < 0.0001) than whole semen. Thin layer and gas chromatography showed that HPM lipids had more (P < 0.05) sphingomyelin and phosphatidylserine, and less phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine than did the sperm body membranes (SBM). Overall, HPM had less polyunsaturated fatty acids than SBM (36.8 +/- 3.4 vs. 44.5 +/- 1.7% of total phospholipids, P < 0.05). HPM had slightly more n3 (3.2 +/- 0.5 vs. 1.3 +/- 0.2%, P < 0.01) but much less n6 (33.6 +/- 3.3 vs. 43.3 +/- 1.9%, P < 0.01), specifically less C22:4n6. Future study of avian sperm will be able to reliably characterize the structure-function relationships of specific sperm membranes.

A role for lipid shells in targeting proteins to caveolae, rafts, and other lipid domains

The surface membrane of cells is studded with morphologically distinct regions, or domains, like microvilli, cell-cell junctions, and coated pits. Each of these domains is specialized for a particular function, such as nutrient absorption, cell-cell communication, and endocytosis. Lipid domains, which include caveolae and rafts, are one of the least understood membrane domains. These domains are high in cholesterol and sphingolipids, have a light buoyant density, and function in both endocytosis and cell signaling. A major mystery, however, is how resident molecules are targeted to lipid domains. Here, we propose that the molecular address for proteins targeted to lipid domains is a lipid shell.

Molecular markers and determinants of prostate cancer metastasis

Although intensely studied, the molecular and biochemical determinants of prostate cancer development and progression remain ill-defined. Moreover, current markers and methodologies cannot distinguish between a tumor that will remain indolent and not impinge on patient survival, versus a tumor with aggressive traits culminating in metastatic spread and death. Once prostate cancer is confirmed the most significant threat to a patient's survival and quality of life involves tumor metastasis. Radical surgery notwithstanding, prostate cancer accounts for 10% of all cancer-related deaths primarily arising through development of metastasis. Metastasis markers demonstrating an acceptable level of reliability are an obvious necessity if disproportionate and costly treatment is to be avoided and a reasonably accurate determination of clinical prognosis and measure of successful response to treatment is to be made. Therapeutic strategies that specifically inhibit metastatic spread are not presently possible and may not become available in the immediate future. This is because, while localized tumorigenesis has been relatively amenable to detection, analysis and treatment, metastasis remains a relatively undefined, complex and underexplored area of prostate cancer research. New findings in the field such subclasses of genes called metastasis suppressors and cancer progression suppressors, have opened up exciting avenues of investigation. We review current methodological approaches, model experimental systems and genes presently known or having potential involvement in human prostate cancer metastasis.