Modification of the degree of 4-O-methylation of secondary wall glucuronoxylan

Plant secondary walls are the major constituent of plant biomass targeted for second-generation biofuel production. Therefore, a thorough understanding of how secondary walls are constructed is critical for a better utilization of plant biomass for biofuel production. One of the major components in secondary walls is xylan, which is composed of a linear chain of β-1,4-linked xylosyl residues. In Arabidopsis, about 10% of xylosyl residues in xylan are substituted with glucuronic acid (GlcA), of which 60% are methylated at O-4. By contrast, all of the GlcA substituents in Populus xylan are methylated at O-4. It is not known how the degree of GlcA methylation in xylan is controlled. In this report, we demonstrated that simultaneous T-DNA knockout mutations of the three glucuronoxylan methyltransferase (GXM) genes, GXM1, GXM2, and GXM3/GXMT1, which are specifically expressed in secondary wall-forming cells, led to a complete loss of GlcA methylation in xylan in Arabidopsis stems. Overexpression of GXM2 and GXM3 in wild-type Arabidopsis resulted in an up to 5-fold increase in glucuronoxylan methyltransferase activity and as a result, up to 90% of the GlcA side chains in xylan were methylated as opposed to 60% seen in the wild type. The increased degree of GlcA methylation in xylan had no discernable effects on cell wall sugar composition and lignin monomer composition. These results reveal that the activities of GXM1, GXM2 and GXM3 are responsible for all of the GlcA methylation in xylan in Arabidopsis stems and that the degree of GlcA methylation in xylan can be modified by altered expression of GXMs.

Identification and biochemical characterization of four wood-associated glucuronoxylan methyltransferases in Populus

Wood is one of the promising bioenergy feedstocks for lignocellulosic biofuel production. Understanding how wood components are synthesized will help us design strategies for better utilization of wood for biofuel production. One of the major wood components is xylan, in which about 10% of xylosyl residues are substituted with glucuronic acid (GlcA) side chains. All the GlcA side chains of xylan in wood of Populus trichocarpa are methylated, which is different from Arabidopsis xylan in which about 60% of GlcA side chains are methylated. Genes responsible for methylation of GlcA side chains in Populus xylan have not been identified. Here, we report genetic and biochemical analyses of four DUF579 domain-containing proteins, PtrGXM1, PtrGXM2, PtrGXM3 and PtrGXM4, from Populus trichocarpa and their roles in GlcA methylation in xylan. The PtrGXM genes were found to be highly expressed in wood-forming cells and their encoded proteins were shown to be localized in the Golgi. When overexpressed in the Arabidopsis gxm1/2/3 triple mutant, PtrGXMs were able to partially complement the mutant phenotypes including defects in glucuronoxylan methyltransferase activity and GlcA methylation in xylan, indicating that PtrGXMs most likely function as glucuronoxylan methyltransferases. Direct evidence was provided by enzymatic analysis of recombinant PtrGXM proteins showing that they possessed a methyltransferase activity capable of transferring the methyl group onto GlcA-substituted xylooligomers. Kinetic analysis showed that PtrGXMs exhibited differential affinities toward the GlcA-substituted xylooligomer acceptor with PtrGXM3 and PtrGXM4 having 10 times higher K_m values than PtrGXM1 and PtrGXM2. Together, these findings indicate that PtrGXMs are methyltransferases mediating GlcA methylation in Populus xylan during wood formation.

The Arabidopsis DUF231 domain-containing protein ESK1 mediates 2-O- and 3-O-acetylation of xylosyl residues in xylan

Xylan, a major polysaccharide in plant lignocellulosic biomass, is acetylated at O-2 and/or O-3 and its acetylation impedes the use of biomass for biofuel production. Currently, it is not known what genes encode acetyltransferases that are responsible for xylan O-acetylation. In this report, we demonstrate an essential role for the Arabidopsis gene ESKIMO1 (ESK1) in xylan O-acetylation during secondary wall biosynthesis. ESK1 expression was found to be regulated by the secondary wall master regulator SND1 (secondary wall-associated NAC domain protein1) and specifically associated with secondary wall biosynthesis. Its encoded protein was localized in the Golgi, the site of xylan biosynthesis. The esk1 mutation caused reductions in secondary wall thickening and stem mechanical strength. Chemical analyses of cell walls revealed that although the esk1 mutation did not cause apparent alterations in the xylan chain length and the abundance of the reducing end sequence, it resulted in a significant reduction in the degree of xylan acetylation. The reduced acetylation of esk1 xylan rendered it more accessible and digestible by endoxylanase, leading to generation of shorter xylooligomers compared with the wild type. Further structural analysis of xylan showed that the esk1 mutation caused a specific reduction in 2-O- and 3-O-monoacetylation of xylosyl residues but not in 2,3-di-O-acetylation or 3-O-acetylation of xylosyl residues substituted at O-2 with glucuronic acid. Consistent with ESK1's involvement in xylan O-acetylation, an activity assay revealed that the esk1 mutation led to a significant decrease in xylan acetyltransferase activity. Together, these results demonstrate that ESK1 is a putative xylan acetyltransferase required for 2-O- and 3-O-monoacetylation of xylosyl residues and indicate the complexity of the biochemical mechanism underlying xylan O-acetylation.

Three Arabidopsis DUF579 domain-containing GXM proteins are methyltransferases catalyzing 4-o-methylation of glucuronic acid on xylan

Xylan is made of a linear chain of β-1,4-linked xylosyl residues, some of which are substituted with side chains, such as glucuronic acid (GlcA), methylglucuronic acid (MeGlcA) and arabinose, depending on the source of xylan. Although past studies have revealed a number of genes involved in the elongation of the xylan backbone and the addition of GlcA and arabinosyl side chains, no genes have been shown to be implicated in glucuronoxylan methylation. In this report, we investigated the roles of three Arabidopsis genes, namely GLUCURONOXYLAN METHYLTRANSFERASE1 (GXM1), GXM2 and GXM3, in xylan biosynthesis. The GXM1/2/3 genes were found to be expressed in secondary wall-forming cells and their expression was regulated by SND1, a secondary wall master transcriptional switch. Their encoded proteins were shown to be located in the Golgi, where xylan biosynthesis occurs. Chemical analysis of cell wall sugars from single and double mutants of these genes revealed that although no alterations in the amount of xylose were observed, a significant reduction in the level of MeGlcA was evident in the gxm3 single mutant and the gxm double mutants. Structural analysis of xylan demonstrated that the gxm mutations caused a specific defect in GlcA methylation on xylan without affecting the frequency of xylan substitution. Only about 10% of the GlcA residues on xylan were methylated in the gxm2/3 double mutant, whereas in the wild type 60% of the GlcA residues were methylated. Furthermore, an activity assay demonstrated that recombinant GXM proteins exhibited a methyltransferase activity capable of transferring the methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine onto GlcA-substituted xylooligomers and simultaneous mutations of GXM2/3 genes caused a loss of such a methyltransferase activity. Taken together, our results provide the first line of genetic and biochemical evidence that the three DUF579 domain-containing proteins, GXM1, GXM2 and GXM3, are methyltransferases catalyzing 4-O-methylation of GlcA side chains on xylan.