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Seo H, Kim M, Kim S, Mahmud HA, Islam MI, Nam KW, Cho ML, Kwon HS, Song HY. In vitro activity of alpha-viniferin isolated from the roots of Carex humilis against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2017; 46:41-47. [PMID: 28782713 DOI: 10.1016/j.pupt.2017.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
This study explores the antitubercular activity of α-viniferin, a bioactive phytochemical compound obtained from Carex humilis. α-Viniferin was active against both drug-susceptible and -resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis at MIC50s of 4.6 μM in culture broth medium and MIC50s of 2.3-4.6 μM inside macrophages and pneumocytes. In combination with streptomycin and ethambutol, α-viniferin exhibited an additive effect and partial synergy, respectively, against M. tuberculosis H37Rv. α-Viniferin also did not show cytotoxicity in any of the cell lines tested up to a concentration of 147 μM, which gives this compound a selectivity index of >32. Moreover, α-viniferin was active against 3 Staphylococcus species, including methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis (MRSE).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoonhee Seo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan, Chungnam 31151, Republic of Korea
| | - Mijung Kim
- Regional Innovation Center, Soonchunhyang University, Asan, Chungnam 31538, Republic of Korea
| | - Sukyung Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan, Chungnam 31151, Republic of Korea
| | - Hafij Al Mahmud
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan, Chungnam 31151, Republic of Korea
| | - Md Imtiazul Islam
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan, Chungnam 31151, Republic of Korea
| | - Kung-Woo Nam
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Soonchunhyang University, Asan, Chungnam 31538, Republic of Korea
| | - Myoung-Lae Cho
- National Development Institute of Korean Medicine, Gyeongsan, Gyeongnam 38540, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Sook Kwon
- National Development Institute of Korean Medicine, Gyeongsan, Gyeongnam 38540, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Yeon Song
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan, Chungnam 31151, Republic of Korea.
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Bonacorso HG, Rosa WC, Oliveira SM, Brusco I, Brum ES, Rodrigues MB, Frizzo CP, Zanatta N. Synthesis of novel trifluoromethyl-substituted spiro-[chromeno[4,3-d]pyrimidine-5,1'-cycloalkanes], and evaluation of their analgesic effects in a mouse pain model. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2017; 27:1551-1556. [PMID: 28259627 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2017.02.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Herein we report the synthesis of twelve 2,5-substituted 4-(trifluoromethyl)-spirochromeno[4,3-d]pyrimidines (7-10), as well as an evaluation of their analgesic effect in a mouse pain model. The nine new chromeno[4,3-d]pyrimidines (7-9) were synthesized from the cyclocondensation reactions of three 2,2,2-trifluoro-1-(4-methoxyspiro[chromene-2,1'-cycloalkane]-3-yl)ethanones (3) containing 5-, 6- and 7-membered spirocycloalkanes, with some well-known amidine salts (4-6) [NH2CR(NH)]-in which R=Me, Ph, and NH2-at yields of 60-95%. Subsequently, three new 2-(pyrrol-1-yl)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-chromeno[4,3-d]pyrimidines (10) were obtained through a Clauson-Kaas reaction between the respective 2-(amino)-4-(trifluoromethyl)-chromeno[4,3-d]pyrimidines (9) and 2,5-dimethoxy-tetrahydrofuran. The analgesic evaluation showed that these 4-(trifluoromethyl)chromeno[4,3-d]pyrimidines (100mg/kg, p.o.) and Ketoprofen (100mg/kg, p.o.) significantly reduced capsaicin-induced spontaneous nociception. Moreover, the 2-pyrrolyl-spirocyclohexane derivative 10b (100 and 300mg/kg, p.o.) had an anti-allodynic effect comparable to Ketoprofen (100 and 300mg/kg, p.o.) in the arthritic pain model, without causing locomotor alterations in the mice. These results suggest that the compound 10b is a promising molecule for new analgesic drugs in the treatment of pathological pain, such as in arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helio G Bonacorso
- Núcleo de Química de Heterociclos (NUQUIMHE), Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97.105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil.
| | - Wilian C Rosa
- Núcleo de Química de Heterociclos (NUQUIMHE), Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97.105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Sara M Oliveira
- Laboratório de Neurotoxicidade e Psicofarmacologia, Departamento de Bioquímica Toxicológica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97.105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Indiara Brusco
- Laboratório de Neurotoxicidade e Psicofarmacologia, Departamento de Bioquímica Toxicológica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97.105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Evelyne S Brum
- Laboratório de Neurotoxicidade e Psicofarmacologia, Departamento de Bioquímica Toxicológica, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97.105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Melissa B Rodrigues
- Núcleo de Química de Heterociclos (NUQUIMHE), Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97.105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Clarissa P Frizzo
- Núcleo de Química de Heterociclos (NUQUIMHE), Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97.105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Nilo Zanatta
- Núcleo de Química de Heterociclos (NUQUIMHE), Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 97.105-900 Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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Tisserant LP, Hubert J, Lequart M, Borie N, Maurin N, Pilard S, Jeandet P, Aziz A, Renault JH, Nuzillard JM, Clément C, Boitel-Conti M, Courot E. 13C NMR and LC-MS Profiling of Stilbenes from Elicited Grapevine Hairy Root Cultures. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2016; 79:2846-2855. [PMID: 27933900 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.6b00608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Resveratrol and related oligostilbenes are defense molecules produced by grapevine in response to stresses including various elicitors or signal molecules. Together with their prominent role in planta, these compounds have been the center of much attention in recent decades due to their pharmacological properties. The cost-effective production of resveratrol derivatives such as viniferins or more structurally complex stilbene oligomers remains a challenging task. In this study, the chemical diversity of stilbenes produced by Vitis vinifera Pinot Noir hairy roots was investigated after elicitation for 4 days with a mixture of methyl jasmonate (100 μM) and cyclodextrins (50 mM). Two crude extracts obtained from the culture medium and from the hairy roots were fractionated by centrifugal partition chromatography. The fractions were chemically investigated by two complementary identification approaches involving a 13C NMR-based dereplication method and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS). In total, groups of 21 and 18 molecules, including flavonoids and stilbenes, were detected in the culture medium and root extracts, respectively. These included resveratrol monomers, dimers, trimers, and a tetramer, thus highlighting the ability of elicited hairy root culture systems to synthesize a wide diversity of secondary metabolites of pharmaceutical significance. The main compounds were unambiguously identified as trans-resveratrol, ε-viniferin, trans-piceatannol, pallidol, scirpusin A, eriodictyol, naringenin, vitisin B, and maackin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo-Paul Tisserant
- Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne EA 4707, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
- Laboratoire de Biologie des Plantes & Innovation EA 3900, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, UFR de Sciences, Ilot des Poulies , 33 Rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens Cedex, France
| | - Jane Hubert
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims UMR CNRS 7312, SFR Cap 'Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Michelle Lequart
- Laboratoire de Biologie des Plantes & Innovation EA 3900, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, UFR de Sciences, Ilot des Poulies , 33 Rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens Cedex, France
| | - Nicolas Borie
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims UMR CNRS 7312, SFR Cap 'Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Nicolas Maurin
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims UMR CNRS 7312, SFR Cap 'Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Serge Pilard
- Plateforme Analytique, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, UFR des Sciences , Bâtiment Serres-Transfert Rue Dallery-Passage du Sourire d'Avril, 80039 Amiens Cedex 1, France
| | - Philippe Jeandet
- Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne EA 4707, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Aziz Aziz
- Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne EA 4707, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Jean-Hugues Renault
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims UMR CNRS 7312, SFR Cap 'Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Jean-Marc Nuzillard
- Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims UMR CNRS 7312, SFR Cap 'Santé, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Christophe Clément
- Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne EA 4707, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
| | - Michèle Boitel-Conti
- Laboratoire de Biologie des Plantes & Innovation EA 3900, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, UFR de Sciences, Ilot des Poulies , 33 Rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens Cedex, France
| | - Eric Courot
- Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne EA 4707, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles , BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France
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Abstract
Many naturally occurring oligostilbenes have drawn considerable attention because of their intricate structures and diverse biological activities. In recent years, oligostilbene bioactivities have become a popular research topic worldwide. Although these bioactivities are known to be extensive and several summaries on the activities of the compounds have been published, a comprehensive and systematic summary on active oligostilbenes is unavailable. From January 2005 to December 2013, a large number of active oligostilbenes and corresponding new bioactivities were reported in the literature. This review mainly focuses on the diverse bioactivities of oligostilbenes with various backbones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian-Fen Wang
- a State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines , Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100050 , China
| | - Chun-Suo Yao
- a State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substance and Function of Natural Medicines , Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College , Beijing 100050 , China
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Sim J, Jang HW, Song M, Kim JH, Lee SH, Lee S. Potent inhibitory effect of alpha-viniferin on human cytochrome P450. Food Chem Toxicol 2014; 69:276-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2014.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Revised: 04/05/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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6
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Jančinová V, Perečko T, Nosáľ R, Harmatha J, Smidrkal J, Drábiková K. The natural stilbenoid pinosylvin and activated neutrophils: effects on oxidative burst, protein kinase C, apoptosis and efficiency in adjuvant arthritis. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2012; 33:1285-92. [PMID: 22842731 PMCID: PMC4002707 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2012.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To investigate the effects of the naturally occurring stilbenoid pinosylvin on neutrophil activity in vitro and in experimental arthritis, and to examine whether protein kinase C (PKC) activation served as an assumed target of pinosylvin action. METHODS Fresh human blood neutrophils were isolated. The oxidative burst of neutrophils was evaluated on the basis of enhanced chemiluminescence. Neutrophil viability was evaluated with flow cytometry, and PKC phosphorylation was assessed by Western blotting analysis. Adjuvant arthritis was induced in Lewis rats with heat-killed Mycobacterium butyricum, and the animals were administered with pinosylvin (30 mg/kg, po) daily for 21 d after arthritis induction. RESULTS In isolated human neutrophils, pinosylvin (10 and 100 μmol/L) significantly decreased the formation of oxidants, both extra- and intracellularly, and effectively inhibited PKC activation stimulated by phorbol myristate acetate (0.05 μmol/L). The inhibition was not due to neutrophil damage or increased apoptosis. In arthritic rats, the number of neutrophils in blood was dramatically increased, and whole blood chemiluminescence (spontaneous and PMA-stimulated) was markedly enhanced. Pinosylvin administration decreased the number of neutrophils (from 69 671 ± 5588/μL to 51 293 ± 3947/μL, P=0.0198) and significantly reduced the amount of reactive oxygen species in blood. CONCLUSION Pinosylvin is an effective inhibitor of neutrophil activity, and is potentially useful as a complementary medicine in states associated with persistent inflammation.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Animals
- Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal/administration & dosage
- Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal/pharmacology
- Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal/therapeutic use
- Apoptosis/drug effects
- Arthritis, Experimental/blood
- Arthritis, Experimental/drug therapy
- Arthritis, Experimental/enzymology
- Arthritis, Experimental/immunology
- Blotting, Western
- Cell Survival/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Flow Cytometry
- Humans
- Leukocyte Count
- Luminescent Measurements
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Neutrophil Activation/drug effects
- Neutrophils/cytology
- Neutrophils/drug effects
- Neutrophils/metabolism
- Pinus sylvestris/chemistry
- Protein Kinase C/metabolism
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred Lew
- Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism
- Respiratory Burst/drug effects
- Stilbenes/administration & dosage
- Stilbenes/pharmacology
- Stilbenes/therapeutic use
- Young Adult
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Affiliation(s)
- Viera Jančinová
- Institute of Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovak Republic.
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González-Sarrías A, Gromek S, Niesen D, Seeram NP, Henry GE. Resveratrol oligomers isolated from Carex species inhibit growth of human colon tumorigenic cells mediated by cell cycle arrest. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:8632-8638. [PMID: 21761862 DOI: 10.1021/jf201561e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Research has shown that members of the Carex genus produce biologically active stilbenoids including resveratrol oligomers. This is of great interest to the nutraceutical industry given that resveratrol, a constituent of grape and red wine, has attracted immense research attention due to its potential human health benefits. In the current study, five resveratrol oligomers (isolated from Carex folliculata and Carex gynandra ), along with resveratrol, were evaluated for antiproliferative effects against human colon cancer (HCT-116, HT-29, Caco-2) and normal human colon (CCD-18Co) cells. The resveratrol oligomers included one dimer, two trimers, and two tetramers: pallidol (1); α-viniferin (2) and trans-miyabenol C (3); and kobophenols A (4) and B (5), respectively. Although not cytotoxic, the resveratrol oligomers (1-5), as well as resveratrol, inhibited growth of the human colon cancer cells. Among the six stilbenoids, α-viniferin (2) was most active against the colon cancer cells with IC(50) values of 6-32 μM (>2-fold compared to normal colon cells). Moreover, α-viniferin (at 20 μM) did not induce apoptosis but arrested cell cycle (in the S-phase) for the colon cancer but not the normal colon cells. This study adds to the growing body of knowledge supporting the anticancer effects of resveratrol and its oligomers. Furthermore, Carex species should be investigated for their nutraceutical potential given that they produce biologically active stilbenoids such as α-viniferin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio González-Sarrías
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island 02881, United States
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Chung EY, Roh E, Kwak JA, Lee HS, Lee SH, Lee CK, Han SB, Kim Y. alpha-Viniferin suppresses the signal transducer and activation of transcription-1 (STAT-1)-inducible inflammatory genes in interferon-gamma-stimulated macrophages. J Pharmacol Sci 2010; 112:405-14. [PMID: 20424383 DOI: 10.1254/jphs.09247fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
alpha-Viniferin, an oligostilbene of trimeric resveratrol, has been reported to have anti-inflammatory potential in carrageenin-induced paw edema or adjuvant-induced arthritis in animal models. However, little is known about the molecular basis. In this study, alpha-viniferin at 3 - 10 microM dose-dependently inhibited interferon (IFN)-gamma-induced Ser(727) phosphorylation of the signal transducer and activation of transcription-1 (STAT-1), a pivotal transcription factor controlling IFN-gamma-targeted genes, in RAW 264.7 macrophages, and also IFN-gamma-induced activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-1, a protein kinase upstream of the Ser(727) phosphorylation of STAT-1. However, alpha-viniferin, only at a higher concentration of 10 microM, inhibited Janus kinase 2-mediated Tyr(701) phosphorylation of STAT-1 in the cells. To understand STAT-1-dependent inflammatory responses, we quantified nitric oxide (NO) or chemokines. alpha-Viniferin at 3 - 10 muM dose-dependently inhibited IFN-gamma-induced production of NO, IFN-gamma-inducible protein-10 (IP-10), or the monokine induced by IFN-gamma (MIG) in RAW 264.7 cells and also that of NO in primary macrophages-derived from C57BL/6 mice. Furthermore, alpha-viniferin diminished IFN-gamma-induced protein levels of inducible NO synthase (iNOS), attenuated mRNA levels of iNOS, IP-10, or MIG as well as inhibited promoter activity of the iNOS gene. In conclusion, this study proposes an anti-inflammatory mechanism of alpha-viniferin, down-regulating STAT-1-inducible inflammatory genes via inhibiting ERK-mediated STAT-1 activation in IFN-gamma-stimulated macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Yong Chung
- College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Korea
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Gautam R, Jachak SM. Recent developments in anti-inflammatory natural products. Med Res Rev 2009; 29:767-820. [DOI: 10.1002/med.20156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 301] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Antiproliferative activities of resveratrol and related compounds in human hepatocyte derived HepG2 cells are associated with biochemical cell disturbance revealed by fluorescence analyses. Biochimie 2008; 90:1674-84. [PMID: 18627786 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2008.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2007] [Accepted: 06/17/2008] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Resveratrol is a well known polyphenol largely produced in grapevine. It is a strong antioxidant and a free radical scavenger. It exhibits several beneficial effects for health including cancer. Resveratrol antioxidant activity is essential in the prevention of chemical-induced cancer by inhibiting initiation step of carcinogenesis process but it is also considered to inhibit cancer promotion and progression steps. While the effects of resveratrol on cancer cells are widely described, the data available on the antiproliferative potential of resveratrol derivatives remain weak. Nevertheless, resveratrol analogs could exhibit stronger potentials than the parent molecule. So, we compared the cellular effects of trans-resveratrol, trans-epsilon-viniferin and their respective acetate derivatives, as well as a polyphenol mixture extracted from grapevine shoots, called vineatrol. We studied their abilities to interfere with cell proliferation, their uptake and their effects on parameters of cellular state in human hepatoma cells (HepG2). Cell growth experiments show that resveratrol triacetate presents a slightly better antiproliferative potential than resveratrol. The dimer epsilon-viniferin,as well as its pentaacetate analog, is less powerful than resveratrol, although a similar uptake kinetics in cells. Interestingly, among the tested polyphenols, vineatrol is the most potent solution, indicating a possible synergistic effect of both resveratrol and epsilon-viniferin. We took advantage of the fluorescence properties of these compounds to evidence cellular uptake by using flow cytometry. In addition, by competition assay, we demonstrate that resveratrol triacetate enters in hepatic HepG2 cells by the same way as resveratrol. By autofluorescence in situ measurement we observed that resveratrol and related compounds induce deep changes in cells activity. These changes occur mainly by increasing NADPH cell content and the number of green fluorescent cytoplasmic granular structures which may be related to an induction of detoxifying enzyme mechanisms.
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