The occurrence and timing of high-pressure metamorphism on Margarita Island, Venezuela: a constraint on Caribbean-South America interaction

The metamorphic rock sequences exposed on the Island of Margarita, Venezuela, located in the southeastern corner of the Caribbean Plate margin, are composed of a high-pressure/low-temperature (HP/LT) nucleus subducted to at least 50 km depth, now structurally overlain by lower-grade greenschist-facies units lacking any sign of high-pressure subduction-zone metamorphism. The HP/LT nucleus involves protoliths of both oceanic (metabasalts and intimately associated carbonaceous schists of the La Rinconada unit; peridotite massifs) and continental affinity (metapelites, marbles and gneisses of the Juan Griego unit). All HP/LT units were joined together prior to the peak of high-pressure metamorphism, as shown by their matching metamorphic pressure–temperature evolution. The metamorphic grade attained produced barroisite as the regional amphibole. Glaucophane is not known from Margarita. Contrary to a widely propagated assumption, there are nomajornappe structurespost-datingHP/LT metamorphism anywherewithinthe high-pressure nucleus of Margarita Island. U–Pb zircon dating of key tonalitic to granitic intrusive rocks provides the following constraints: (1) the Juan Griego unit is heterogeneous and contains Palaeozoic as well as probable Mesozoic protolith; (2) the peak of HP/LT metamorphism, that is maximum subduction, is younger than 116–106 Ma and older than 85 Ma, most probablyc.100–90 Ma, a time span during which the southeastern Caribbean/South American border was clearly a passive margin. The assembly of Margaritan protoliths and their HP/LT overprint occurred far to the west in northwestern South America, a scenario completely in accord with the details of the Pacific-origin model outlined by Pindell & Kennan. Juxtaposition of the greenschist-facies units occurred after exhumation into mid-crustal levels afterc.80 Ma.

Tectonic evolution of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and northern South America in the mantle reference frame: an update

We present an updated synthesis of the widely accepted ‘single-arc Pacific-origin’ and ‘Yucatán-rotation’ models for Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico evolution, respectively. Fourteen palaeogeographic maps through time integrate new concepts and alterations to earlier models. Pre-Aptian maps are presented in a North American reference frame. Aptian and younger maps are presented in an Indo-Atlantic hot spot reference frame which demonstrates the surprising simplicity of Caribbean–American interaction. We use the Mülleret al.(Geology21: 275–278, 1993) reference frame because the motions of the Americas are smoothest in this reference frame, and because it does not differ significantly, at least sincec.90 Ma, from more recent ‘moving hot spot’ reference frames. The Caribbean oceanic lithosphere has moved little relative to the hot spots in the Cenozoic, but moved north atc.50 km/Ma during the Cretaceous, while the American plates have drifted west much further and faster and thus are responsible for most Caribbean–American relative motion history. New or revised features of this model, generally driven by new data sets, include: (1) refined reconstruction of western Pangaea; (2) refined rotational motions of the Yucatán Block during the evolution of the Gulf of Mexico; (3) an origin for the Caribbean Arc that invokes Aptian conversion to a SW-dipping subduction zone of a trans-American plate boundary from Chortís to Ecuador that was part sinistral transform (northern Caribbean) and part pre-existing arc (eastern, southern Caribbean); (4) acknowledgement that the Caribbean basalt plateau may pertain to the palaeo-Galapagos hot spot, the occurrence of which was partly controlled by a Proto-Caribbean slab gap beneath the Caribbean Plate; (5) Campanian initiation of subduction at the Panama–Costa Rica Arc, although a sinistral transform boundary probably pre-dated subduction initiation here; (6) inception of a north-vergent crustal inversion zone along northern South America to account for Cenozoic convergence between the Americas ahead of the Caribbean Plate; (7) a fan-like, asymmetric rift opening model for the Grenada Basin, where the Margarita and Tobago footwall crustal slivers were exhumed from beneath the southeast Aves Ridge hanging wall; (8) an origin for the Early Cretaceous HP/LT metamorphism in the El Tambor units along the Motagua Fault Zone that relates to subduction of Farallon crust along western Mexico (and then translated along the trans-American plate boundary prior to onset of SW-dipping subduction beneath the Caribbean Arc) rather than to collision of Chortis with Southern Mexico; (9) Middle Miocene tectonic escape of Panamanian crustal slivers, followed by Late Miocene and Recent eastward movement of the ‘Panama Block’ that is faster than that of the Caribbean Plate, allowed by the inception of east–west trans-Costa Rica shear zones. The updated model integrates new concepts and global plate motion models in an internally consistent way, and can be used to test and guide more local research across the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean and northern South America. Using examples from the regional evolution, the processes of slab break off and flat slab subduction are assessed in relation to plate interactions in the hot spot reference frame.