Glycyrrhetinic acid interaction with solvated and free electrons studied by the CIDNP and dissociative electron attachment techniques

Electron transfer plays a crucial role in living systems, including the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Oxygen acts as the terminal electron acceptor in the respiratory chains of aerobic organisms as well as in some photoinduced processes followed by the formation of ROS. This is why the participation of exogenous antioxidants in electron transfer processes in living systems is of particular interest. In the present study, using chemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization (CIDNP) and dissociative electron attachment (DEA) techniques, we have elucidated the affinity of solvated and free electrons to glycyrrhetinic acid (GA)-the aglicon of glycyrrhizin (the main active component of Licorice root). CIDNP is a powerful instrument to study the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions in solution, but the DEA technique shows its effectiveness in gas phase processes. For CIDNP experiments, the photoionization of the dianion of 5-sulfosalicylic acid (HSSA2-) was used as a model reaction of solvated electron generation. DEA experiments testify that GA molecules are even better electron acceptors than molecular oxygen, at least under gas-phase conditions. In addition, the effect of the solvent on the energetics of the reactants is discussed.

Surface or Internal Hydration - Does It Really Matter?

The precise location of an ion or electron, whether it is internally solvated or residing on the surface of a water cluster, remains an intriguing question. Subtle differences in the hydrogen bonding network may lead to a preference for one or the other. Here we discuss spectroscopic probes of the structure of gas-phase hydrated ions in combination with quantum chemistry, as well as H/D exchange as a means of structure elucidation. With the help of nanocalorimetry, we look for thermochemical signatures of surface vs internal solvation. Examples of strongly size-dependent reactivity are reviewed which illustrate the influence of surface vs internal solvation on unimolecular rearrangements of the cluster, as well as on the rate and product distribution of ion-molecule reactions.

Detection of Aqueous Solvated Electrons Produced by Photoemission from Solids Using Transient Absorption Measurements

Solvated electrons in water have long been of interest to chemists. While readily produced using intense multiphoton excitation of water and/or irradiation with high-energy particles, the possible role of solvated electrons in electrochemical and photoelectrochemical reactions at electrodes has been controversial. Recent studies showed that excitation of electrons to the conduction band of diamond leads to barrier-free emission of electrons into water. While these electrons can be inferred from the reactions they induce, direct detection by transient absorption measurements provides more direct evidence. Here, we present studies demonstrating direct detection of solvated electrons produced at diamond electrode surfaces and the influence of electrochemical potential and solution-phase electron scavengers. We further present a more detailed analysis of experimental conditions needed to detect solvated electrons emitted from diamond and other solid materials through transient optical absorption measurements.

Delivery of Electrons by Proton-Hole Transfer in Ice at 10 K: Role of Surface OH Radicals

Although water ice has been widely accepted to carry a positive charge via the transfer of excess protons through a hydrogen-bonded system, ice was recently found to be a negative charge conductor upon simultaneous exposure to electrons and ultraviolet photons at temperatures below 50 K. In this work, the mechanism of electron delivery was confirmed experimentally by both measuring currents through ice and monitoring photodissociated OH radicals on ice by using a novel method. The surface OH radicals significantly decrease upon the appearance of negative current flow, indicating that the electrons are delivered by proton-hole (OH^-) transfer in ice triggered by OH^- production on the surface. The mechanism of proton-hole transfer was rationalized by density functional theory calculations.

Electron Scattering in Liquid Water and Amorphous Ice: A Striking Resemblance

The lack of accurate low-energy electron scattering cross sections for liquid water is a substantial source of uncertainty in the modeling of radiation chemistry and biology. The use of existing amorphous ice scattering cross sections for the lack of liquid data has been discussed controversially for decades. Here, we compare experimental photoemission data of liquid water with corresponding predictions using amorphous ice cross sections, with the aim of resolving the debate regarding the difference of electron scattering in liquid water and amorphous ice. We find very similar scattering properties in the liquid and the ice for electron kinetic energies up to a few hundred electron volts. The scattering cross sections recommended here for liquid water are an extension of the amorphous ice cross sections. Within the framework of currently available experimental data, our work answers one of the most debated questions regarding electron scattering in liquid water.

Photoemission from Free Particles and Droplets

Intriguing properties of photoemission from free, unsupported particles and droplets were predicted nearly 50 years ago, though experiments were a technical challenge. The last few decades have seen a surge of research in the field, due to advances in aerosol technology (generation, characterization, and transfer into vacuum), the development of photoelectron imaging spectrometers, and advances in vacuum ultraviolet and ultrafast light sources. Particles and droplets offer several advantages for photoemission studies. For example, photoemission spectra are dependent on the particle's size, shape, and composition, providing a wealth of information that allows for the retrieval of genuine electronic properties of condensed phase. In this review, with a focus on submicrometer-sized, dielectric particles and droplets, we explain the utility of photoemission from such systems, summarize several applications from the literature, and present some thoughts on future research directions.

Ectoine interaction with DNA: influence on ultraviolet radiation damage

Ectoine is a small zwitterionic osmolyte and compatible solute, which does not interfere with cell metabolism even at molar concentrations. Plasmid DNA (pUC19) was irradiated with ultraviolet radiation (UV-C at 266 nm) under quasi physiological conditions (PBS) and in pure water in the presence and absence of ectoine (THP(B)) and hydroxyectoine (THP(A)). Different types of UV induced DNA damage were analysed: DNA single-strand breaks (SSBs), abasic sites and cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs). A complex interplay between these factors was observed with respect to the nature and occurrence of DNA damage with 266 nm photons. In PBS, the cosolutes showed efficient protection against base damage, whilst in pure water, a dramatic shift from SSB damage to base damage was observed when cosolutes were added. To test whether these effects are caused by ectoine binding to DNA, further experiments were conducted: small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), surface-plasmon resonance (SPR) measurements and Raman spectroscopy. The results show, for the first time, a close interaction between ectoine and DNA. This is in stark contrast to the assumption made by preferential exclusion models, which are often used to interpret the behaviour of compatible solutes within cells and with biomolecules. It is tentatively proposed that the alterations of UV damage to DNA are attributed to ectoine influence on nucleobases through the direct interaction between ectoine and DNA.

Trapping a Photoelectron behind a Repulsive Coulomb Barrier in Solution

Multiply charged anions (MCAs) display unique photophysics and solvent-stabilizing effects. Well-known aqueous species such as SO₄^2- and PO₄^3- experience spontaneous electron detachment or charge-separation fragmentation in the gas phase owing to the strong Coulomb repulsion arising from the excess of negative charge. Thus, anions often present low photodetachment thresholds and the ability to quickly eject electrons into the solvent via charge-transfer-to-solvent (CTTS) states. Here, we report spectroscopic evidence for the existence of a repulsive Coulomb barrier (RCB) that blocks the ejection of "CTTS-like" electrons of the aqueous B₁₂F₁₂^2- dianion. Our spectroscopic experimental and theoretical studies indicate that despite the exerted Coulomb repulsion by the nascent radical monoanion B₁₂F₁₂^-•_aq, the photoexcited electron remains about the B₁₂F₁₂^-• core. The RCB is an established feature of the potential energy landscape of MCAs in vacuo, which seems to extend to the liquid phase highlighting recent observations about the dielectric behavior of confined water.

Role of Photoisomerization on the Photodetachment of the Photoactive Yellow Protein Chromophore

The photocycle of photoactive yellow protein (PYP) is initiated by a photoinduced trans-cis isomerization around a C═C bond in the chromophore that lies at the heart of the protein; however, in addition to the desired photochemical pathway, the chromophore can undergo competing electronic relaxation processes. Here we combine gas-phase anion photoelectron spectroscopy and quantum chemistry calculations to investigate how locking the C═C bond in the chromophore controls the competition between these electronic relaxation processes following photoexcitation in the range 400-310 nm. We find evidence to suggest that preventing trans-cis isomerization effectively turns off internal conversion to the ground electronic state and enhances electron emission from the first electronically excited state.

Complete Suppression of Bias-Induced Threshold Voltage Shift below 273 K in Solution-Processed High-Performance Organic Transistors

Despite their importance for future applications, the operational electrical stability of organic thin-film transistors is far from being understood. Even in the most stable organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) operated under vacuum, a hitherto unknown source leads to bias stress. Here, we investigate the electrical characteristics and operational stability of a high-performance diketopyrrolopyrrole- alt-terthiophene organic semiconductor. Even though the OFETs are characterized by a high mobility of 3 cm² V^-1 s^-1 and trap-free transport, the threshold voltage shift in all stress modes remains sensitive to the presence of water even when operating devices in high vacuum. Exponential fitting from current bias-stress measurement up to 500 000 s showed a bias-voltage shift of <1 V, which corresponds to the density of the bias-induced trap states at infinite time N_T^∞ = 7.6 × 10¹⁰ cm^-2. We have surprisingly found that electrical stress could be completely suppressed when devices are cooled to below 273 K. We present evidence that H₃O⁺ and OH^- stemming from the autoionization of liquid water is the hitherto unidentified universal trap (i.e., an extrinsic trap not stemming from the semiconductor itself) causing threshold voltage shift even in the otherwise stable devices. This interpretation would also clarify why in the literature similar N_T have been reported in various semiconductors, suggesting that this number is independent of the organic semiconductor, processing and measurement environment but only dependent on residual contaminants-most notably water.

Prediction of rate constants of important chemical reactions in water radiation chemistry in sub and supercritical water – non-equilibrium reactions

The rate constants for reactions involved in the radiolysis of water under relevant thermodynamic conditions in supercritical water-cooled reactors are estimated for inputs in simulations of the radiation chemistry in Generation IV nuclear reactors. We have discussed the mechanism of each chemical reaction with a focus on non-equilibrium reactions. We found most of the reactions are activation controlled above the critical point and that the rate constants are not significantly pressure dependent below 300 °C. This work will aid industry with developing chemical control strategies to suppress the concentration of eroding species.

Sensitivity of Electron Transfer Mediated Decay to Ion Pairing

Ion pairing in electrolyte solutions remains a topic of discussion despite a long history of research. Very recently, nearest-neighbor mediated electronic de-excitation processes of core hole vacancies (electron transfer mediated decay, ETMD) were proposed to carry a spectral fingerprint of local solvation structure and in particular of contact ion pairs. Here, for the first time, we apply electron-electron coincidence detection to a liquid microjet, and record ETMD spectra of Li 1s vacancies in aqueous solutions of lithium chloride (LiCl) in direct comparison to lithium acetate (LiOAc). A change in the ETMD spectrum dependent on the electrolyte anion identity is observed for 4.5 M salt concentration. We discuss these findings within the framework of the formation and presence of contact ion pairs and the unique sensitivity of ETMD spectroscopy to ion pairing.

Genuine binding energy of the hydrated electron

The unknown influence of inelastic and elastic scattering of slow electrons in water has made it difficult to clarify the role of the solvated electron in radiation chemistry and biology. We combine accurate scattering simulations with experimental photoemission spectroscopy of the hydrated electron in a liquid water microjet, with the aim of resolving ambiguities regarding the influence of electron scattering on binding energy spectra, photoelectron angular distributions, and probing depths. The scattering parameters used in the simulations are retrieved from independent photoemission experiments of water droplets. For the ground-state hydrated electron, we report genuine values devoid of scattering contributions for the vertical binding energy and the anisotropy parameter of 3.7 ± 0.1 eV and 0.6 ± 0.2, respectively. Our probing depths suggest that even vacuum ultraviolet probing is not particularly surface-selective. Our work demonstrates the importance of quantitative scattering simulations for a detailed analysis of key properties of the hydrated electron.

Size-Resolved Photoelectron Anisotropy of Gas Phase Water Clusters and Predictions for Liquid Water

We report the first measurements of size-resolved photoelectron angular distributions for the valence orbitals of neutral water clusters with up to 20 molecules. A systematic decrease of the photoelectron anisotropy is found for clusters with up to 5-6 molecules, and most remarkably, convergence of the anisotropy for larger clusters. We suggest the latter to be the result of a local short-range scattering potential that is fully described by a unit of 5-6 molecules. The cluster data and a detailed electron scattering model are used to predict the anisotropy of slow photoelectrons in liquid water. Reasonable agreement with experimental liquid jet data is found.

Experimentally probing the libration of interfacial water: the rotational potential of water is stiffer at the air/water interface than in bulk liquid

Most properties of liquid water are determined by its hydrogen-bond network. Because forming an aqueous interface requires termination of this network, one might expect the molecular level properties of interfacial water to markedly differ from water in bulk. Intriguingly, much prior experimental and theoretical work has found that, from the perspective of their time-averaged structure and picosecond structural dynamics, hydrogen-bonded OH groups at an air/water interface behave the same as hydrogen-bonded OH groups in bulk liquid water. Here we report the first experimental observation of interfacial water's libration (i.e. frustrated rotation) using the laser-based technique vibrational sum frequency spectroscopy. We find this mode has a frequency of 834 cm(-1), ≈165 cm(-1) higher than in bulk liquid water at the same temperature and similar to bulk ice. Because libration frequency is proportional to the stiffness of water's rotational potential, this increase suggests that one effect of terminating bulk water's hydrogen bonding network at the air/water interface is retarding rotation of water around intact hydrogen bonds. Because in bulk liquid water the libration plays a key role in stabilizing reaction intermediates and dissipating excess vibrational energy, we expect the ability to probe this mode in interfacial water to open new perspectives on the kinetics of heterogeneous reactions at aqueous interfaces.

A means to an interface: investigating monoethanolamine behavior at an aqueous surface

The use of amine scrubbers to trap carbon dioxide from flue gas streams is one of the most promising avenues for atmospheric carbon dioxide reduction. However, modifications are necessary to efficiently scale these scrubbers for use in fossil fuel plants. Current advances in tailoring amines for CO2 capture involve improvements of bulk kinetic and thermodynamic parameters, with little consideration to surface chemistry and behavior. Aqueous alkanolamine solutions, such as monoethanolamine (MEA), are currently highly favored sorbents in CO2 post-combustion capture. Although numerous studies have explored MEA-CO2 chemistry at the macroscopic scale, few have investigated the role of the interface in the gas adsorption process. Additionally, as these amines become more industrially ubiquitous, their presence on and the need to understand their behavior at atmospheric and environmental surfaces will increase. This study investigates the surface behavior of monoethanolamine at the vapor/water interface, with particular focus on MEA's surface orientation and footprint. Using vibrational sum frequency spectroscopy, surface tensiometry, and computational techniques, MEA is found to adopt a constrained gauche interfacial conformation with its methylene backbone oriented toward the vapor phase and its functional groups solvated in the bulk solution. Computational and experimental analysis agree well, giving a complete picture with vibrational mode assignments and surface orientation of MEA. These findings can assist in the tailoring of amine structures or to facilitate improvements in engineering design to exploit favorable surface chemistry, as well as to serve as a starting point toward understanding aqueous amine surface behavior relevant to environmental systems.

Influences of Surface and Ionic Properties on Electricity Generation of an Active Transducer Driven by Water Motion

In this Letter, we discuss the surface, ionic properties, and scale-up potential of an active transducer that generated electricity from natural water motion. When a liquid contacts a solid surface, an electrical double layer (EDL) is always formed at the solid/liquid interface. By modulating the EDL, the active transducer could generate a peak voltage of ∼3 V and a peak power of ∼5 μW. Interestingly, there were specific salinities of solution droplets that showed maximum performance and different characteristics according to the ions' nature. Analyzing the results macroscopically, we tried to figure out the origins of the active transducing precipitated by ions dynamics. Also, we demonstrated the scale-up potential for practical usage by multiple electrode design.

Plasmon-assisted radiolytic energy conversion in aqueous solutions

The field of conventional energy conversion using radioisotopes has almost exclusively focused on solid-state materials. Herein, we demonstrate that liquids can be an excellent media for effective energy conversion from radioisotopes. We also show that free radicals in liquid, which are continuously generated by beta radiation, can be utilized for electrical energy generation. Under beta radiation, surface plasmon obtained by the metallic nanoporous structures on TiO₂ enhanced the radiolytic conversion via the efficient energy transfer between plasmons and free radicals. This work introduces a new route for the development of next-generation power sources.

Relaxation mechanism of the hydrated electron

The relaxation dynamics of the photoexcited hydrated electron have been subject to conflicting interpretations. Here, we report time-resolved photoelectron spectra of hydrated electrons in a liquid microjet with the aim of clarifying ambiguities from previous experiments. A sequence of three ultrashort laser pulses (~100 femtosecond duration) successively created hydrated electrons by charge-transfer-to-solvent excitation of dissolved anions, electronically excited these electrons via the s→p transition, and then ejected them into vacuum. Two distinct transient signals were observed. One was assigned to the initially excited p-state with a lifetime of ~75 femtoseconds, and the other, with a lifetime of ~400 femtoseconds, was attributed to s-state electrons just after internal conversion in a nonequilibrated solvent environment. These assignments support the nonadiabatic relaxation model.

Excited-state dynamics of charged dyes at alkane/water interfaces in the presence of salts and ionic surfactants

The excited-state dynamics of the cationic dye malachite green (MG) and of the dianionic dye eosin B at the dodecane/water interface has been investigated using femtosecond time-resolved surface second harmonic generation (TR-SSHG). By using different probe wavelengths, the contributions of monomeric and aggregated MG to the signal could be spectroscopically distinguished. The effect of the addition of a small amount of surfactants was found to strongly depend on the relative charges of surfactant and dye. For surfactant/dye pairs with opposite charges, the TR-SSHG signal is dominated by the contribution from aggregates, whereas for pairs with the same charges, the signal intensity becomes vanishingly small. These effects are explained in terms of electrostatic interactions between surfactants and dyes that favor either attraction of the dye toward the interface or its repulsion toward the bulk. As a very similar behavior is observed with MG upon addition of NaSCN, we conclude that, in this case, this effect reflects the affinity of SCN¯ for the interface. On the other hand, the guanidinium cation was found to have a different effect than that of a positively charged surfactant on the SSHG signal of MG, indicating this cation does not accumulate in the interfacial region.