Ribonuclease P: unity and diversity in a tRNA processing ribozyme

A Proposal for the RNAome at the Dawn of the Last Universal Common Ancestor

From the most ancient RNAs, which followed an RNY pattern and folded into small hairpins, modern RNA molecules evolved by two different pathways, dubbed Extended Genetic Code 1 and 2, finally conforming to the current standard genetic code. Herein, we describe the evolutionary path of the RNAome based on these evolutionary routes. In general, all the RNA molecules analysed contain portions encoded by both genetic codes, but crucial features seem to be better recovered by Extended 2 triplets. In particular, the whole Peptidyl Transferase Centre, anti-Shine-Dalgarno motif, and a characteristic quadruplet of the RNA moiety of RNAse-P are clearly unveiled. Differences between bacteria and archaea are also detected; in most cases, the biological sequences are more stable than their controls. We then describe an evolutionary trajectory of the RNAome formation, based on two complementary evolutionary routes: one leading to the formation of essentials, while the other complemented the molecules, with the cooperative assembly of their constituents giving rise to modern RNAs.

Anti-Th/To Antibodies in Scleroderma: Good Prognosis or Serious Concern?

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) represents a rare and intricate autoimmune connective tissue disease, the pathophysiology of which has not been fully understood. Its key features include progressive fibrosis of the skin and internal organs, vasculopathy and aberrant immune activation. While various anti-nuclear antibodies can serve as biomarkers for the classification and prognosis of SSc, their direct role in organ dysfunction remains unclear. Anti-Th/To antibodies are present in approximately 5% of SSc patients, and are particularly prevalent among those with the limited subtype of the disease. Although the presence of these autoantibodies is associated with a mild course of the disease, there is a strong connection between them and severe clinical manifestations of SSc, including interstitial lung disease, pulmonary arterial hypertension and gastrointestinal involvement. Also, the additional clinical correlations, particularly with malignancies, need further research. Moreover, the disease's course seems to be influenced by antibodies, specific serum cytokines and TLR signaling pathways. Understanding the relationships between presence of anti-Th/To, its molecular aspects and response to treatment options is crucial for the development of novel, personalized therapeutic techniques and should undergo profound analysis in future studies.

In Vitro Amplification and Selection of Engineered RNase P Ribozyme for Gene Targeting Applications

Ribozymes engineered from the RNase P catalytic RNA (M1 RNA) represent promising gene-targeting agents for clinical applications. We describe in this report an in vitro amplification and selection procedure for generating active RNase P ribozyme variants with improved catalytic efficiency. Using the amplification and selection procedure, we have previously generated ribozyme variants that were highly active in cleaving a herpes simplex virus 1-encoded mRNA in vitro and inhibiting its expression in virally infected human cells. In this chapter, we use an overlapping region of the mRNAs for the IE1 and IE2 proteins of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) as a target substrate. We provide detailed protocols and include methods for establishing the procedure for the amplification and selection of active mRNA-cleaving RNase P ribozymes. The in vitro amplification and selection system represents an excellent approach for engineering highly active RNase P ribozymes that can be used in both basic research and clinical applications.

Biological function and clinical application prospect of tsRNAs in digestive system biology and pathology

tsRNAs are small non-coding RNAs originating from tRNA that play important roles in a variety of physiological activities such as RNA silencing, ribosome biogenesis, retrotransposition, and epigenetic inheritance, as well as involvement in cellular differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis. tsRNA-related abnormalities have a significant influence on the onset, development, and progression of numerous human diseases, including malignant tumors through affecting the cell cycle and specific signaling molecules. This review introduced origins together with tsRNAs classification, providing a summary for regulatory mechanism and physiological function while dysfunctional effect of tsRNAs in digestive system diseases, focusing on the clinical prospects of tsRNAs for diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. Video Abstract.

The diverse structural modes of tRNA binding and recognition

tRNAs are short noncoding RNAs responsible for decoding mRNA codon triplets, delivering correct amino acids to the ribosome, and mediating polypeptide chain formation. Due to their key roles during translation, tRNAs have a highly conserved shape and large sets of tRNAs are present in all living organisms. Regardless of sequence variability, all tRNAs fold into a relatively rigid three-dimensional L-shaped structure. The conserved tertiary organization of canonical tRNA arises through the formation of two orthogonal helices, consisting of the acceptor and anticodon domains. Both elements fold independently to stabilize the overall structure of tRNAs through intramolecular interactions between the D- and T-arm. During tRNA maturation, different modifying enzymes posttranscriptionally attach chemical groups to specific nucleotides, which not only affect translation elongation rates but also restrict local folding processes and confer local flexibility when required. The characteristic structural features of tRNAs are also employed by various maturation factors and modification enzymes to assure the selection, recognition, and positioning of specific sites within the substrate tRNAs. The cellular functional repertoire of tRNAs continues to extend well beyond their role in translation, partly, due to the expanding pool of tRNA-derived fragments. Here, we aim to summarize the most recent developments in the field to understand how three-dimensional structure affects the canonical and noncanonical functions of tRNA.

Plant organellar RNA maturation

Plant organellar RNA metabolism is run by a multitude of nucleus-encoded RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) that control RNA stability, processing, and degradation. In chloroplasts and mitochondria, these post-transcriptional processes are vital for the production of a small number of essential components of the photosynthetic and respiratory machinery-and consequently for organellar biogenesis and plant survival. Many organellar RBPs have been functionally assigned to individual steps in RNA maturation, often specific to selected transcripts. While the catalog of factors identified is ever-growing, our knowledge of how they achieve their functions mechanistically is far from complete. This review summarizes the current knowledge of plant organellar RNA metabolism taking an RBP-centric approach and focusing on mechanistic aspects of RBP functions and the kinetics of the processes they are involved in.

Transfer RNA-derived small RNAs in tumor microenvironment

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs responsible for amino acid translocation during protein synthesis and are ubiquitously found in organisms. With certain modifications and under specific conditions, tRNAs can be sheared and fragmented into small non-coding RNAs, also known as tRNA-derived small RNAs (tDRs). With the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies and bioinformatic strategies, more and more tDRs have been identified and their functions in organisms have been characterized. tRNA and it derived tDRs, have been shown to be essential not only for transcription and translation, but also for regulating cell proliferation, apoptosis, metastasis, and immunity. Aberrant expression of tDRs is associated with a wide range of human diseases, especially with tumorigenesis and tumor progression. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex ecosystem consisting of various cellular and cell-free components that are mutually compatible with the tumor. It has been shown that tDRs regulate the TME by regulating cancer stem cells, immunity, energy metabolism, epithelial mesenchymal transition, and extracellular matrix remodeling, playing a pro-tumor or tumor suppressor role. In this review, the biogenesis, classification, and function of tDRs, as well as their effects on the TME and the clinical application prospects will be summarized and discussed based on up to date available knowledge.

Mapping of RNase P Ribozyme Regions in Proximity with a Human RNase P Subunit Protein Using Fe(II)-EDTA Cleavage and Nuclease Footprint Analyses

Ribonuclease P (RNase P), which may consist of both protein subunits and a catalytic RNA part, is responsible for 5' maturation of tRNA by cleaving the 5'-leader sequence. In Escherichia coli, RNase P contains a catalytic RNA subunit (M1 RNA) and a protein factor (C5 protein). In human cells, RNase P holoenzyme consists of an RNA subunit (H1 RNA) and multiple protein subunits that include human RPP29 protein. M1GS, a sequence specific targeting ribozyme derived from M1 RNA, can be constructed to target a specific mRNA to degrade it in vitro. Recent studies have shown that M1GS ribozymes are efficient in blocking the expression of viral mRNAs in cultured cells and in animals. These results suggest that RNase P ribozymes have the potential to be useful in basic research and in clinical applications. It has been shown that RNase P binding proteins, such as C5 protein and RPP29, can enhance the activities of M1GS RNA in processing a natural tRNA substrate and a target mRNA. Understanding how RPP29 binds to M1GS RNA and enhances the enzyme's catalytic activity will provide great insight into developing more robust gene-targeting ribozymes for in vivo application. In this chapter, we describe the methods of using Fe(II)-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) cleavage and nuclease footprint analyses to determine the regions of a M1GS ribozyme that are in proximity to RPP29 protein.

Grad-seq analysis of Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium provides a global view of RNA and protein complexes in these two opportunistic pathogens

Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium are major nosocomial pathogens. Despite their relevance to public health and their role in the development of bacterial antibiotic resistance, relatively little is known about gene regulation in these species. RNA-protein complexes serve crucial functions in all cellular processes associated with gene expression, including post-transcriptional control mediated by small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs). Here, we present a new resource for the study of enterococcal RNA biology, employing the Grad-seq technique to comprehensively predict complexes formed by RNA and proteins in E. faecalis V583 and E. faecium AUS0004. Analysis of the generated global RNA and protein sedimentation profiles led to the identification of RNA-protein complexes and putative novel sRNAs. Validating our data sets, we observe well-established cellular RNA-protein complexes such as the 6S RNA-RNA polymerase complex, suggesting that 6S RNA-mediated global control of transcription is conserved in enterococci. Focusing on the largely uncharacterized RNA-binding protein KhpB, we use the RIP-seq technique to predict that KhpB interacts with sRNAs, tRNAs, and untranslated regions of mRNAs, and might be involved in the processing of specific tRNAs. Collectively, these datasets provide departure points for in-depth studies of the cellular interactome of enterococci that should facilitate functional discovery in these and related Gram-positive species. Our data are available to the community through a user-friendly Grad-seq browser that allows interactive searches of the sedimentation profiles (https://resources.helmholtz-hiri.de/gradseqef/).

tRNA dysregulation and disease

tRNAs are key adaptor molecules that decipher the genetic code during translation of mRNAs in protein synthesis. In contrast to the traditional view of tRNAs as ubiquitously expressed housekeeping molecules, awareness is now growing that tRNA-encoding genes display tissue-specific and cell type-specific patterns of expression, and that tRNA gene expression and function are both dynamically regulated by post-transcriptional RNA modifications. Moreover, dysregulation of tRNAs, mediated by alterations in either their abundance or function, can have deleterious consequences that contribute to several distinct human diseases, including neurological disorders and cancer. Accumulating evidence shows that reprogramming of mRNA translation through altered tRNA activity can drive pathological processes in a codon-dependent manner. This Review considers the emerging evidence in support of the precise control of functional tRNA levels as an important regulatory mechanism that coordinates mRNA translation and protein expression in physiological cell homeostasis, and highlights key examples of human diseases that are linked directly to tRNA dysregulation.

Three tRNA nuclear exporters in S. cerevisiae: parallel pathways, preferences, and precision

tRNAs that are transcribed in the nucleus are exported to the cytoplasm to perform their iterative essential function in translation. However, the complex set of tRNA post-transcriptional processing and subcellular trafficking steps are not completely understood. In particular, proteins involved in tRNA nuclear export remain unknown since the canonical tRNA nuclear exportin, Los1/Exportin-t, is unessential in all tested organisms. We previously reported that budding yeast Mex67-Mtr2, a mRNA nuclear exporter, co-functions with Los1 in tRNA nuclear export. Here we employed in vivo co-purification of tRNAs with endogenously expressed nuclear exporters to document that Crm1 also is a bona fide tRNA nuclear exporter. We document that Los1, Mex67-Mtr2 and Crm1 possess individual tRNA preferences for forming nuclear export complexes with members of the 10 families of intron-containing pre-tRNAs. Remarkably, Mex67-Mtr2, but not Los1 or Crm1, is error-prone, delivering tRNAs to the cytoplasm prior to 5′ leader removal. tRNA retrograde nuclear import functions to monitor the aberrant leader-containing spliced tRNAs, returning them to the nucleus where they are degraded by 3′ to 5′ exonucleases. Overall, our work identifies a new tRNA nuclear exporter, uncovers exporter preferences for specific tRNA families, and documents contribution of tRNA nuclear import to tRNA quality control.

An Overview of Pentatricopeptide Repeat (PPR) Proteins in the Moss Physcomitrium patens and Their Role in Organellar Gene Expression

Pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) proteins are one type of helical repeat protein that are widespread in eukaryotes. In particular, there are several hundred PPR members in flowering plants. The majority of PPR proteins are localized in the plastids and mitochondria, where they play a crucial role in various aspects of RNA metabolism at the post-transcriptional and translational steps during gene expression. Among the early land plants, the moss Physcomitrium (formerly Physcomitrella) patens has at least 107 PPR protein-encoding genes, but most of their functions remain unclear. To elucidate the functions of PPR proteins, a reverse-genetics approach has been applied to P. patens. To date, the molecular functions of 22 PPR proteins were identified as essential factors required for either mRNA processing and stabilization, RNA splicing, or RNA editing. This review examines the P. patens PPR gene family and their current functional characterization. Similarities and a diversity of functions of PPR proteins between P. patens and flowering plants and their roles in the post-transcriptional regulation of organellar gene expression are discussed.

Broadening the spectrum of ivermectin: Its effect on Trypanosoma cruzi and related trypanosomatids

Chagas disease is an endemic American parasitosis, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. The current therapies, benznidazole (BZN) and nifurtimox (NFX), show limited efficacy and multiple side effects. Thus, there is a need to develop new trypanocidal strategies. Ivermectin (IVM) is a broad-spectrum antiparasitic drug with low human and veterinary toxicity with effects against T. brucei and Leishmania spp. Considering this and its relatively low cost, we evaluate IVM as a potential repurposed trypanocidal drug on T. cruzi and other trypanosomatids. We found that IVM affected, in a dose-dependent manner, the proliferation of T. cruzi epimastigotes as well as the amastigotes and trypomastigotes survival. The Selectivity Index for the amastigote stage with respect to Vero cells was 12. The IVM effect was also observed in Phytomonas jma 066 and Leishmania mexicana proliferation but not in Crithidia fasciculata. On the epimastigote stage, the IVM effect was trypanostatic at 50 μM but trypanocidal at 100 μM. The assays of the drug combinations of IVM with BNZ or NFX showed mainly additive effects among combinations. In silico studies showed that classical structures belonging to glutamate-gated Cl channels, the most common IVM target, are absent in kinetoplastids. However, we found in the studied trypanosomatid genomes one copy for putative IMPα and IMPβ, potential targets for IVM. The putative IMPα genes (with 76% similarity) showed conserved Armadillo domains but lacked the canonical IMPβ binding sequence. These results allowed us to propose a novel molecular target in T. cruzi and suggest IVM as a good candidate for drug repurposing in the Chagas disease context.

Transfer RNA Synthesis-Coupled Translation and DNA Replication in a Reconstituted Transcription/Translation System

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are key molecules involved in translation. In vitro synthesis of tRNAs and their coupled translation are important challenges in the construction of a self-regenerative molecular system. Here, we first purified EF-Tu and ribosome components in a reconstituted translation system of Escherichia coli to remove residual tRNAs. Next, we expressed 15 types of tRNAs in the repurified translation system and performed translation of the reporter luciferase gene depending on the expression. Furthermore, we demonstrated DNA replication through expression of a tRNA encoded by DNA, mimicking information processing within the cell. Our findings highlight the feasibility of an in vitro self-reproductive system, in which tRNAs can be synthesized from replicating DNA.

Structural and mechanistic basis of RNA processing by protein-only ribonuclease P enzymes

Ribonuclease P (RNase P) enzymes are responsible for the 5' processing of tRNA precursors. In addition to the well-characterised ribozyme-based RNase P enzymes, an evolutionarily distinct group of protein-only RNase Ps exists. These proteinaceous RNase Ps (PRORPs) can be found in all three domains of life and can be divided into two structurally different types: eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Recent structural studies on members of both families reveal a surprising diversity of molecular architectures, but also highlight conceptual and mechanistic similarities. Here, we provide a comparison between the different types of PRORP enzymes and review how the combination of structural, biochemical, and biophysical studies has led to a molecular picture of protein-mediated tRNA processing.

Biogenesis, Functions, Interactions, and Resources of Non-Coding RNAs in Plants

Plant transcriptomes encompass a large number of functional non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), only some of which have protein-coding capacity. Since their initial discovery, ncRNAs have been classified into two broad categories based on their biogenesis and mechanisms of action, housekeeping ncRNAs and regulatory ncRNAs. With advances in RNA sequencing technology and computational methods, bioinformatics resources continue to emerge and update rapidly, including workflow for in silico ncRNA analysis, up-to-date platforms, databases, and tools dedicated to ncRNA identification and functional annotation. In this review, we aim to describe the biogenesis, biological functions, and interactions with DNA, RNA, protein, and microorganism of five major regulatory ncRNAs (miRNA, siRNA, tsRNA, circRNA, lncRNA) in plants. Then, we systematically summarize tools for analysis and prediction of plant ncRNAs, as well as databases. Furthermore, we discuss the silico analysis process of these ncRNAs and present a protocol for step-by-step computational analysis of ncRNAs. In general, this review will help researchers better understand the world of ncRNAs at multiple levels.

tRNA-derived small RNAs: mechanisms and potential roles in cancers

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are essential for protein synthesis. Mature or pre-tRNAs may be cleaved to produce tRNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs). tsRNAs, divided into tRNA-derived stress-induced RNA (tiRNAs) and tRNA-derived fragments (tRFs), play versatile roles in a number of fundamental biological processes. tsRNAs not only play regulatory roles in gene silencing, RNA stability, reverse transcription, and translation, but are also closely related to cell proliferation, migration, cell cycle, and apoptosis. Their abnormal expression is associated with the occurrence and development of various human diseases, especially cancer. This paper reviews the classification, biogenesis, and mechanism of action of tsRNAs, and the research progress to date on tsRNAs in cancers. These findings provide new opportunities for diagnostic biomarkers and treatment targets of several types of cancers including gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinomas, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, renal cell carcinoma, ovarian cancer, lung cancer, bladder cancer, thyroid cancer, oral cancer, and leukemia.

Plant RNA-mediated gene regulatory network

Not all transcribed RNAs are protein-coding RNAs. Many of them are non-protein-coding RNAs in diverse eukaryotes. However, some of them seem to be non-functional and are resulted from spurious transcription. A lot of non-protein-coding transcripts have a significant function in the translation process. Gene expressions depend on complex networks of diverse gene regulatory pathways. Several non-protein-coding RNAs regulate gene expression in a sequence-specific system either at the transcriptional level or post-transcriptional level. They include a significant part of the gene expression regulatory network. RNA-mediated gene regulation machinery is evolutionarily ancient. They well-evolved during the evolutionary time and are becoming much more complex than had been expected. In this review, we are trying to summarizing the current knowledge in the field of RNA-mediated gene silencing.

Regulatory roles of tRNA-derived RNA fragments in human pathophysiology

Hundreds of tRNA genes and pseudogenes are encoded by the human genome. tRNAs are the second most abundant type of RNA in the cell. Advancement in deep-sequencing technologies have revealed the presence of abundant expression of functional tRNA-derived RNA fragments (tRFs). They are either generated from precursor (pre-)tRNA or mature tRNA. They have been found to play crucial regulatory roles during different pathological conditions. Herein, we briefly summarize the discovery and recent advances in deciphering the regulatory role played by tRFs in the pathophysiology of different human diseases.

Transfer RNA-derived small RNA: A rising star in oncology

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) participate in protein synthesis through delivering amino acids to the ribosome. Nevertheless, recent studies revealed that tRNAs can undergo cleavage by endoribonucleases to generate a heterogeneous class of small RNAs, designated as tRNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs). Accumulating evidence demonstrates that tsRNAs play an important role in many biological processes, and their dysregulation is associated with the progression of diseases including cancer. Abnormally expressed tsRNAs contribute to tumor initiation and development through distinct mechanisms, such as transcriptional regulation and RNA interference. In this review, we briefly summarize the current knowledge regarding classification, biogenesis and biological function of tsRNAs. Moreover, we highlight the dysregulation and critical roles of tsRNAs in cancer and discuss their potentials as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets.

Ligand-dependent tRNA processing by a rationally designed RNase P riboswitch

We describe a synthetic riboswitch element that implements a regulatory principle which directly addresses an essential tRNA maturation step. Constructed using a rational in silico design approach, this riboswitch regulates RNase P-catalyzed tRNA 5′-processing by either sequestering or exposing the single-stranded 5′-leader region of the tRNA precursor in response to a ligand. A single base pair in the 5′-leader defines the regulatory potential of the riboswitch both in vitro and in vivo. Our data provide proof for prior postulates on the importance of the structure of the leader region for tRNA maturation. We demonstrate that computational predictions of ligand-dependent structural rearrangements can address individual maturation steps of stable non-coding RNAs, thus making them amenable as promising target for regulatory devices that can be used as functional building blocks in synthetic biology.

tRNA-Derived Small RNAs and Their Potential Roles in Cardiac Hypertrophy

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are abundantly expressed, small non-coding RNAs that have long been recognized as essential components of the protein translation machinery. The tRNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs), including tRNA halves (tiRNAs), and tRNA fragments (tRFs), were unexpectedly discovered and have been implicated in a variety of important biological functions such as cell proliferation, cell differentiation, and apoptosis. Mechanistically, tsRNAs regulate mRNA destabilization and translation, as well as retro-element reverse transcriptional and post-transcriptional processes. Emerging evidence has shown that tsRNAs are expressed in the heart, and their expression can be induced by pathological stress, such as hypertrophy. Interestingly, cardiac pathophysiological conditions, such as oxidative stress, aging, and metabolic disorders can be viewed as inducers of tsRNA biogenesis, which further highlights the potential involvement of tsRNAs in these conditions. There is increasing enthusiasm for investigating the molecular and biological functions of tsRNAs in the heart and their role in cardiovascular disease. It is anticipated that this new class of small non-coding RNAs will offer new perspectives in understanding disease mechanisms and may provide new therapeutic targets to treat cardiovascular disease.

Chaperna: linking the ancient RNA and protein worlds

As a mental framework for the transition of self-replicating biological forms, the RNA world concept stipulates a dual function of RNAs as genetic substance and catalyst. The chaperoning function is found intrinsic to ribozymes involved in protein synthesis and tRNA maturation, enriching the primordial RNA world with proteins of biological relevance. The ribozyme-resident protein folding activity, even before the advent of protein-based molecular chaperone, must have expedited the transition of the RNA world into the present protein theatre.

Long Noncoding RNAs Involved in the Endocrine Therapy Resistance of Breast Cancer

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are defined as RNAs longer than 200 nucleotides that do not encode proteins. Recent studies have demonstrated that numerous lncRNAs are expressed in humans and play key roles in the development of various types of cancers. Intriguingly, some lncRNAs have been demonstrated to be involved in endocrine therapy resistance for breast cancer through their own mechanisms, suggesting that lncRNAs could be promising new biomarkers and therapeutic targets of breast cancer. Here, we summarize the functions and mechanisms of lncRNAs related to the endocrine therapy resistance of breast cancer.

Pathological significance of tRNA-derived small RNAs in neurological disorders

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are a type of RNA that is not translated into proteins. Transfer RNAs (tRNAs), a type of ncRNA, are the second most abundant type of RNA in cells. Recent studies have shown that tRNAs can be cleaved into a heterogeneous population of ncRNAs with lengths of 18–40 nucleotides, known as tRNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs). There are two main types of tsRNA, based on their length and the number of cleavage sites that they contain: tRNA-derived fragments and tRNA-derived stress-induced RNAs. These RNA species were first considered to be byproducts of tRNA random cleavage. However, mounting evidence has demonstrated their critical functional roles as regulatory factors in the pathophysiological processes of various diseases, including neurological diseases. However, the underlying mechanisms by which tsRNAs affect specific cellular processes are largely unknown. Therefore, this study comprehensively summarizes the following points: (1) The biogenetics of tsRNA, including their discovery, classification, formation, and the roles of key enzymes. (2) The main biological functions of tsRNA, including its miRNA-like roles in gene expression regulation, protein translation regulation, regulation of various cellular activities, immune mediation, and response to stress. (3) The potential mechanisms of pathophysiological changes in neurological diseases that are regulated by tsRNA, including neurodegeneration and neurotrauma. (4) The identification of the functional diversity of tsRNA may provide valuable information regarding the physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms of neurological disorders, thus providing a new reference for the clinical treatment of neurological diseases. Research into tsRNAs in neurological diseases also has the following challenges: potential function and mechanism studies, how to accurately quantify expression, and the exact relationship between tsRNA and miRNA. These challenges require future research efforts.

Integration of Fungus-Specific CandA-C1 into a Trimeric CandA Complex Allowed Splitting of the Gene for the Conserved Receptor Exchange Factor of CullinA E3 Ubiquitin Ligases in Aspergilli

Aspergillus species are important for biotechnological applications, like the production of citric acid or antibacterial agents. Aspergilli can cause food contamination or invasive aspergillosis to immunocompromised humans or animals. Specific treatment is difficult due to limited drug targets and emerging resistances. The CandA complex regulates, as a receptor exchange factor, the activity and substrate variability of the ubiquitin labeling machinery for 26S proteasome-mediated protein degradation. Only Aspergillus species encode at least two proteins that form a CandA complex. This study shows that Aspergillus species had to integrate a third component into the CandA receptor exchange factor complex that is unique to aspergilli and required for vegetative growth, sexual reproduction, and activation of the ubiquitin labeling machinery. These features have interesting implications for the evolution of protein complexes and could make CandA-C1 an interesting candidate for target-specific drug design to control fungal growth without affecting the human ubiquitin-proteasome system.

E3 cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase (CRL) complexes recognize specific substrates and are activated by covalent modification with ubiquitin-like Nedd8. Deneddylation inactivates CRLs and allows Cand1/A to bind and exchange substrate recognition subunits. Human as well as most fungi possess a single gene for the receptor exchange factor Cand1, which is split and rearranged in aspergilli into two genes for separate proteins. Aspergillus nidulans CandA-N blocks the neddylation site, and CandA-C inhibits the interaction to the adaptor/substrate receptor subunits similar to the respective N-terminal and C-terminal parts of single Cand1. The pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus and related species express a CandA-C with a 190-amino-acid N-terminal extension domain encoded by an additional exon. This extension corresponds in most aspergilli, including A. nidulans, to a gene directly upstream of candA-C encoding a 20-kDa protein without human counterpart. This protein was named CandA-C1, because it is also required for the cellular deneddylation/neddylation cycle and can form a trimeric nuclear complex with CandA-C and CandA-N. CandA-C and CandA-N are required for asexual and sexual development and control a distinct secondary metabolism. CandA-C1 and the corresponding domain of A. fumigatus control spore germination, vegetative growth, and the repression of additional secondary metabolites. This suggests that the dissection of the conserved Cand1-encoding gene within the genome of aspergilli was possible because it allowed the integration of a fungus-specific protein required for growth into the CandA complex in two different gene set versions, which might provide an advantage in evolution.

Distributive enzyme binding controlled by local RNA context results in 3' to 5' directional processing of dicistronic tRNA precursors by Escherichia coli ribonuclease P

RNA processing by ribonucleases and RNA modifying enzymes often involves sequential reactions of the same enzyme on a single precursor transcript. In Escherichia coli, processing of polycistronic tRNA precursors involves separation into individual pre-tRNAs by one of several ribonucleases followed by 5′ end maturation by ribonuclease P. A notable exception are valine and lysine tRNAs encoded by three polycistronic precursors that follow a recently discovered pathway involving initial 3′ to 5′ directional processing by RNase P. Here, we show that the dicistronic precursor containing tRNA^valV and tRNA^valW undergoes accurate and efficient 3′ to 5′ directional processing by RNase P in vitro. Kinetic analyses reveal a distributive mechanism involving dissociation of the enzyme between the two cleavage steps. Directional processing is maintained despite swapping or duplicating the two tRNAs consistent with inhibition of processing by 3′ trailer sequences. Structure-function studies identify a stem–loop in 5′ leader of tRNA^valV that inhibits RNase P cleavage and further enforces directional processing. The results demonstrate that directional processing is an intrinsic property of RNase P and show how RNA sequence and structure context can modulate reaction rates in order to direct precursors along specific pathways.

Computational Investigation of RNA A-Bulges Related to the Microtubule-Associated Protein Tau Causing Frontotemporal Dementia and Parkinsonism

Mutations in the human tau gene result in alternative splicing of the tau protein, which causes frontotemporal dementia and Parkinsonism. One disease mechanism is linked to the stability of a hairpin within the microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT) mRNA, which contains an A-bulge. Here we employ computational methods to investigate the structural and thermodynamic properties of several A-bulge RNAs with different closing base-pairs. We find that the current amber RNA force field has a preference to overstabilize base-triple over stacked states, even though some of the A-bulges are known to prefer stacked states according to NMR studies. We further determined that if the neighboring base-pairs of A-bulges are AU, this situation can lead to base slippage. However, when the 3'-side of the A-bulge has an UA base-pair, the stacked state is stabilized by an extra interaction that is not observed in the other sequences. We suggest that these A-bulge RNA systems could be used as benchmarks to improve the current RNA force fields.

Improvement of RNA Simulations with Torsional Revisions of the AMBER Force Field

Our current knowledge on the unique roles of RNA in cells makes it vital to investigate the properties of RNA systems using computational methods because of the potential pharmaceutical applications. With the continuous advancement of computer technology, it is now possible to study RNA folding. Molecular mechanics calculations are useful in discovering the structural and thermodynamic properties of RNA systems. Yet, the predictions depend on the quality of the RNA force field, which is a set of parameters describing the potential energy of the system. Torsional parameters are one of the terms in a force field that can be revised using physics-based approaches. This chapter focuses on improvements provided by revisions of torsional parameters of the AMBER (Assisted Model Building with Energy Refinement) RNA force field. The theory behind torsional revisions and re-parameterization of several RNA torsions is briefly described. Applications of the revised torsional parameters to study RNA nucleosides, single-stranded RNA tetramers, and RNA repeat expansions are described in detail. It is concluded that RNA force fields require constant revisions and should be benchmarked against diverse RNA systems such as single strands and internal loops in order to test their qualities.

Insights into RNA-processing pathways and associated RNA-degrading enzymes in Archaea

RNA-processing pathways are at the centre of regulation of gene expression. All RNA transcripts undergo multiple maturation steps in addition to covalent chemical modifications to become functional in the cell. This includes destroying unnecessary or defective cellular RNAs. In Archaea, information on mechanisms by which RNA species reach their mature forms and associated RNA-modifying enzymes are still fragmentary. To date, most archaeal actors and pathways have been proposed in light of information gathered from Bacteria and Eukarya. In this context, this review provides a state of the art overview of archaeal endoribonucleases and exoribonucleases that cleave and trim RNA species and also of the key small archaeal proteins that bind RNAs. Furthermore, synthetic up-to-date views of processing and biogenesis pathways of archaeal transfer and ribosomal RNAs as well as of maturation of stable small non-coding RNAs such as CRISPR RNAs, small C/D and H/ACA box guide RNAs, and other emerging classes of small RNAs are described. Finally, prospective post-transcriptional mechanisms to control archaeal messenger RNA quality and quantity are discussed.

Engineered RNase P Ribozymes Effectively Inhibit the Infection of Murine Cytomegalovirus in Animals

Rationales: Gene-targeting ribozymes represent promising nucleic acid-based gene interference agents for therapeutic application. We previously used an in vitro selection procedure to engineer novel RNase P-based ribozyme variants with enhanced targeting activity. However, it has not been reported whether these ribozyme variants also exhibit improved activity in blocking gene expression in animals.

Methods and Results: In this report, R388-AS, a new engineered ribozyme variant, was designed to target the mRNA of assemblin (AS) of murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV), which is essential for viral progeny production. Variant R338-AS cleaved AS mRNA sequence in vitro at least 200 times more efficiently than ribozyme M1-AS, which originated from the wild type RNase P catalytic RNA sequence. In cultured MCMV-infected cells, R338-AS exhibited better antiviral activity than M1-AS and decreased viral AS expression by 98-99% and virus production by 15,000 fold. In MCMV-infected mice, R388-AS was more active in inhibiting AS expression, blocking viral replication, and improving animal survival than M1-AS.

Conclusions: Our results provide the first direct evidence that novel engineered RNase P ribozyme variants with more active catalytic activity in vitro are also more effective in inhibiting viral gene expression in animals. Moreover, our studies imply the potential of engineering novel RNase P ribozyme variants with unique mutations to improve ribozyme activity for therapeutic application.

In vivo 3'-to-5' exoribonuclease targetomes of Streptococcus pyogenes

To cope with harsh environments and cause infection, bacteria need to constantly adjust gene expression. Ribonucleases (RNases) control the abundance of regulatory and protein-coding RNA through degradation and maturation. The current characterization of 3′-to-5′ exoribonucleases (exoRNases), processing RNAs from their 3′ end, is solely based on the description of a limited number of targets processed by these RNases. Here, we characterized bacterial 3′-to-5′ exoRNase targetomes. We show that YhaM, polynucleotide phosphorylase (PNPase), and RNase R have exoribonucleolytic activities in the human pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes. We demonstrate that PNPase is the main 3′-to-5′ exoRNase participating in RNA decay, we show that RNase R has a limited processing activity, and we describe an intriguing RNA processing behavior for YhaM.

mRNA decay plays an essential role in the control of gene expression in bacteria. Exoribonucleases (exoRNases), which trim transcripts starting from the 5′ or 3′ end, are particularly important to fully degrade unwanted transcripts and renew the pool of nucleotides available in the cell. While recent techniques have allowed genome-wide identification of ribonuclease (RNase) targets in bacteria in vivo, none of the 3′-to-5′ exoRNase targetomes (i.e., global processing sites) have been studied so far. Here, we report the targetomes of YhaM, polynucleotide phosphorylase (PNPase), and RNase R of the human pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes. We determined that YhaM is an unspecific enzyme that trims a few nucleotides and targets the majority of transcript ends, generated either by transcription termination or by endonucleolytic activity. The molecular determinants for YhaM-limited processivity are yet to be deciphered. We showed that PNPase clears the cell from mRNA decay fragments produced by endoribonucleases (endoRNases) and is the major 3′-to-5′ exoRNase for RNA turnover in S. pyogenes. In particular, PNPase is responsible for the degradation of regulatory elements from 5′ untranslated regions. However, we observed little RNase R activity in standard culture conditions. Overall, our study sheds light on the very distinct features of S. pyogenes 3′-to-5′ exoRNases.

Regulatory sRNAs in Cyanobacteria

As the transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression, small RNAs (sRNAs) play important roles in every domain of life in organisms. It has been discovered gradually that bacteria possess multiple means of gene regulation using RNAs. They have been continuously used as model organisms for photosynthesis, metabolism, biotechnology, evolution, and nitrogen fixation for many decades. Cyanobacteria, one of the most ancient life forms, constitute all kinds of photoautotrophic bacteria and exist in almost any environment on this planet. It is believed that a complex RNA-based regulatory mechanism functions in cyanobacteria to help them adapt to changes and stresses in diverse environments. Although lagging far behind other model microorganisms, such as yeast and Escherichia coli, more and more non-coding regulatory sRNAs have been recognized in cyanobacteria during the past decades. In this article, by focusing on cyanobacterial sRNAs, the approaches for detection and targeting of sRNAs will be summarized, four major mechanisms and regulatory functions will be generalized, eight types of cis-encoded sRNA and four types of trans-encoded sRNAs will be reviewed in detail, and their possible physiological functions will be further discussed.

Possible Emergence of Sequence Specific RNA Aminoacylation via Peptide Intermediary to Initiate Darwinian Evolution and Code Through Origin of Life

One of the most intriguing questions in biological science is how life originated on Earth. A large number of hypotheses have been proposed to explain it, each putting an emphasis on different events leading to functional translation and self-sustained system. Here, we propose a set of interactions that could have taken place in the prebiotic environment. According to our hypothesis, hybridization-induced proximity of short aminoacylated RNAs led to the synthesis of peptides of random sequence. We postulate that among these emerged a type of peptide(s) capable of stimulating the interaction between specific RNAs and specific amino acids, which we call "bridge peptide" (BP). We conclude that translation should have emerged at the same time when the standard genetic code begun to evolve due to the stabilizing effect on RNA-peptide complexes with the help of BPs. Ribosomes, ribozymes, and the enzyme-directed RNA replication could co-evolve within the same period, as logical outcome of RNA-peptide world without the need of RNA only self-sustained step.

Sharing the load: Mex67-Mtr2 cofunctions with Los1 in primary tRNA nuclear export

Here, Chatterjee et al. describe a novel tRNA nuclear export pathway that functions in parallel to the tRNA nuclear exporter Los1. They provide molecular, genetic, cytological, and biochemical evidence that the Mex67–Mtr2 (TAP–p15) heterodimer, best characterized for its essential role in mRNA nuclear export, cofunctions with Los1 in tRNA nuclear export.

Eukaryotic transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are exported from the nucleus, their site of synthesis, to the cytoplasm, their site of function for protein synthesis. The evolutionarily conserved β-importin family member Los1 (Exportin-t) has been the only exporter known to execute nuclear export of newly transcribed intron-containing pre-tRNAs. Interestingly, LOS1 is unessential in all tested organisms. As tRNA nuclear export is essential, we previously interrogated the budding yeast proteome to identify candidates that function in tRNA nuclear export. Here, we provide molecular, genetic, cytological, and biochemical evidence that the Mex67–Mtr2 (TAP–p15) heterodimer, best characterized for its essential role in mRNA nuclear export, cofunctions with Los1 in tRNA nuclear export. Inactivation of Mex67 or Mtr2 leads to rapid accumulation of end-matured unspliced tRNAs in the nucleus. Remarkably, merely fivefold overexpression of Mex67–Mtr2 can substitute for Los1 in los1Δ cells. Moreover, in vivo coimmunoprecipitation assays with tagged Mex67 document that the Mex67 binds tRNAs. Our data also show that tRNA exporters surprisingly exhibit differential tRNA substrate preferences. The existence of multiple tRNA exporters, each with different tRNA preferences, may indicate that the proteome can be regulated by tRNA nuclear export. Thus, our data show that Mex67–Mtr2 functions in primary nuclear export for a subset of yeast tRNAs.

Inner-Sphere Coordination of Divalent Metal Ion with Nucleobase in Catalytic RNA

Identification of the function of metal ions and the RNA moieties, particularly nucleobases, that bind metal ions is important in RNA catalysis. Here we combine single-atom and abasic substitutions to probe functions of conserved nucleobases in ribonuclease P (RNase P). Structural and biophysical studies of bacterial RNase P propose direct coordination of metal ions by the nucleobases of conserved uridine and guanosine in helix P4 of the RNA subunit (P RNA). To biochemically probe the function of metal ion interactions, we substituted the universally conserved bulged uridine (U51) in the P4 helix of circularly permuted Bacillus subtilis P RNA with 4-thiouridine, 4-deoxyuridine, and abasic modifications and G378/379 with 2-aminopurine, N7-deazaguanosine, and 6-thioguanosine. The functional group modifications of U51 decrease RNase P-catalyzed phosphodiester bond cleavage 16- to 23-fold, as measured by the single-turnover cleavage rate constant. The activity of the 4-thiouridine RNase P is partially rescued by addition of Cd(II) or Mn(II) ions. This is the first time a metal-rescue experiment provides evidence for inner-sphere divalent metal ion coordination with a nucleobase. Modifications of G379 modestly decrease the cleavage activity of RNase P, suggesting outer-sphere coordination of O6 on G379 to a metal ion. These data provide biochemical evidence for catalytically important interactions of the P4 helix of P RNA with metal ions, demonstrating that the bulged uridine coordinates at least one catalytic metal ion through an inner-sphere interaction. The combination of single-atom and abasic nucleotide substitutions provides a powerful strategy to probe functions of conserved nucleobases in large RNAs.

Transfer RNA-derived small RNAs in plants

Rather than random degradation products, the 18 to 40 nucleotides (nt) transfer RNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs) are RNA species generated specifically from pre-RNAs or mature tRNAs in archaea, bacteria and eukaryotes. Recent studies from animal systems have shown that tsRNAs are important non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the transcriptional and/or post-transcriptional levels. They are involved in various biological processes, such as cell proliferation, tumor genesis, stress response and intergenerational epigenetic inheritance. In this review, we will summarize the discovery, biogenesis, and function of tsRNAs in higher plants. In addition, analysis on tsRNAs from lower plants is shown.

The contribution of the C5 protein subunit of Escherichia coli ribonuclease P to specificity for precursor tRNA is modulated by proximal 5' leader sequences

Recognition of RNA by RNA processing enzymes and RNA binding proteins often involves cooperation between multiple subunits. However, the interdependent contributions of RNA and protein subunits to molecular recognition by ribonucleoproteins are relatively unexplored. RNase P is an endonuclease that removes 5' leaders from precursor tRNAs and functions in bacteria as a dimer formed by a catalytic RNA subunit (P RNA) and a protein subunit (C5 in E. coli). The P RNA subunit contacts the tRNA body and proximal 5' leader sequences [N(-1) and N(-2)] while C5 binds distal 5' leader sequences [N(-3) to N(-6)]. To determine whether the contacts formed by P RNA and C5 contribute independently to specificity or exhibit cooperativity or anti-cooperativity, we compared the relative k_cat/K_m values for all possible combinations of the six proximal 5' leader nucleotides (n = 4096) for processing by the E. coli P RNA subunit alone and by the RNase P holoenzyme. We observed that while the P RNA subunit shows specificity for 5' leader nucleotides N(-2) and N(-1), the presence of the C5 protein reduces the contribution of P RNA to specificity, but changes specificity at N(-2) and N(-3). The results reveal that the contribution of C5 protein to RNase P processing is controlled by the identity of N(-2) in the pre-tRNA 5' leader. The data also clearly show that pairing of the 5' leader with the 3' ACCA of tRNA acts as an anti-determinant for RNase P cleavage. Comparative analysis of genomically encoded E. coli tRNAs reveals that both anti-determinants are subject to negative selection in vivo.

Peptide nucleic acids (PNAs): currently potential bactericidal agents

In recent years, the emergence of ESBL-producing and multi-drug resistant bacteria have been increased and designing novel components is necessary for confrontation these bacteria. Peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) are one of the synthetic components that bind to single strand DNA and RNA. Applications of these components are wide while, and one of the important applications of these components is inhibition of gene expression and knock downing the target gene follow as inhibition of bacterial growth. For PNA targeting gene, peptide-PNAs (PPNA) activity cannot be occurred without sequence homology, at the same time, it has been affected by sequence-based specific target and dose-dependent-based manner. Choosing the conserved sequence in different bacterial genus can provide broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. In this review article, we studied several research papers and extract PNA targeting genes that cause gene knock down and inhibition of bacterial growth. Some novel opportunities for advancement and the design ultra-narrow-spectrum antimicrobial drugs against multi-drug can be accessible by utilizing PNA against necessary genes of pathogens. These results open novel vision for therapeutic intervention. Future researches are required to evaluate the safety, toxicity and pharmacokinetics properties of PPNAs in order to be utilized in clinical treatment.

Improving Computational Predictions of Single-Stranded RNA Tetramers with Revised α/γ Torsional Parameters for the Amber Force Field

With current advancements in RNA based therapeutics, it is becoming crucial to utilize theoretical and computational methods to describe properly the physical properties of RNA molecules. NMR and X-ray crystallography are two powerful techniques for investigating structural properties. However, if the RNA molecules are complex or dynamic, these methods might not be adequate. For computational approaches, the quality of the force field will determine accuracy of our predictions. In this contribution, we revise the α/γ torsional parameters of RNA for amber force field using a model system representing an RNA dimer backbone. Combined with revised χ torsional parameters, previously shown to improve computational predictions, we benchmarked the revised force field on five single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) tetramers, three RNA dodecamer duplexes, and an RNA hairpin. A total of 60 μs of molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were run. We also employ the discrete path sampling (DPS) approach to compare the predictions for the revised amber force field with those for amber10. Our results indicate that the unphysical states observed with amber10 in ssRNA MD simulations are suppressed for the revised amber force field. In line with NMR experimental observations, incorporation of the revised α/γ and χ torsional parameters leads to A-form-like conformational states as the most favorable ssRNA tetramer conformations. Furthermore, the revised force field maintains the A-form geometry in regular RNA duplexes. Our revised amber force field for RNA should therefore improve structural and thermodynamic predictions for challenging RNA systems.

Selecting high-quality negative samples for effectively predicting protein-RNA interactions

Background

The identification of Protein-RNA Interactions (PRIs) is important to understanding cell activities. Recently, several machine learning-based methods have been developed for identifying PRIs. However, the performance of these methods is unsatisfactory. One major reason is that they usually use unreliable negative samples in the training process.

Methods

For boosting the performance of PRI prediction, we propose a novel method to generate reliable negative samples. Concretely, we firstly collect the known PRIs as positive samples for generating positive sets. For each positive set, we construct two corresponding negative sets, one is by our method and the other by random method. Each positive set is combined with a negative set to form a dataset for model training and performance evaluation. Consequently, we get 18 datasets of different species and different ratios of negative samples to positive samples.

Secondly, sequence-based features are extracted to represent each of PRIs and protein-RNA pairs in the datasets. A filter-based method is employed to cut down the dimensionality of feature vectors for reducing computational cost. Finally, the performance of support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF) and naive Bayes (NB) is evaluated on the generated 18 datasets.

Results

Extensive experiments show that comparing to using randomly-generated negative samples, all classifiers achieve substantial performance improvement by using negative samples selected by our method. The improvements on accuracy and geometric mean for the SVM classifier, the RF classifier and the NB classifier are as high as 204.5 and 68.7%, 174.5 and 53.9%, 80.9 and 54.3%, respectively.

Conclusion

Our method is useful to the identification of PRIs.

Fluorescence-Based Real-Time Activity Assays to Identify RNase P Inhibitors

Transfer RNA is transcribed as precursor molecules that are processed before participating in translation catalyzed by the ribosome. Ribonuclease P is the endonuclease that catalyzes the 5' end maturation of precursor tRNA and it is essential for cell survival. Bacterial RNase P has a distinct subunit composition compared to the eukaryal counterparts; therefore, it is an attractive antibacterial target. Here, we describe a real-time fluorescence-based RNase P activity assay using fluorescence polarization/anisotropy with a 5' end fluorescein-labeled pre-tRNA^Asp substrate. This FP/FA assay is sensitive, robust, and easy to transition to a high-throughput mode and it also detects ligands that interact with pre-tRNA. We apply this FP/FA assay to measure Bacillus subtilis RNase P activity under single and multiple turnover conditions in a continuous format and a high-throughput screen of inhibitors, as well as determining the dissociation constant of pre-tRNA for small molecules.

Bacterial type B RNase P: functional characterization of the L5.1-L15.1 tertiary contact and antisense inhibition

Ribonuclease P is the ubiquitous endonuclease that generates the mature 5'-ends of precursor tRNAs. In bacteria, the enzyme is composed of a catalytic RNA (∼400 nucleotides) and a small essential protein subunit (∼13 kDa). Most bacterial RNase P RNAs (P RNAs) belong to the architectural type A; type B RNase P RNA is confined to the low-G+C Gram-positive bacteria. Here we demonstrate that the L5.1-L15.1 intradomain contact in the catalytic domain of the prototypic type B RNase P RNA of Bacillus subtilis is crucial for adopting a compact functional conformation: Disruption of the L5.1-L15.1 contact by antisense oligonucleotides or mutation reduced P RNA-alone and holoenzyme activity by one to two orders of magnitude in vitro, largely retarded gel mobility of the RNA and further affected the structure of regions P7/P8/P10.1, P15 and L15.2, and abolished the ability of B. subtilis P RNA to complement a P RNA-deficient Escherichia coli strain. We also provide mutational evidence that an L9-P1 tertiary contact, as found in some Mycoplasma type B RNAs, is not formed in canonical type B RNAs as represented by B. subtilis P RNA. We finally explored the P5.1 and P15 stem-loop structures as targets for LNA-modified antisense oligonucleotides. Oligonucleotides targeting P15, but not those directed against P5.1, were found to efficiently anneal to P RNA and to inhibit activity (IC₅₀ of ∼2 nM) when incubated with preassembled B. subtilis RNase P holoenzymes.

Determination of the Specificity Landscape for Ribonuclease P Processing of Precursor tRNA 5' Leader Sequences

Maturation of tRNA depends on a single endonuclease, ribonuclease P (RNase P), to remove highly variable 5' leader sequences from precursor tRNA transcripts. Here, we use high-throughput enzymology to report multiple-turnover and single-turnover kinetics for Escherichia coli RNase P processing of all possible 5' leader sequences, including nucleotides contacting both the RNA and protein subunits of RNase P. The results reveal that the identity of N(-2) and N(-3) relative to the cleavage site at N(1) primarily control alternative substrate selection and act at the level of association not the cleavage step. As a consequence, the specificity for N(-1), which contacts the active site and contributes to catalysis, is suppressed. This study demonstrates high-throughput RNA enzymology as a means to globally determine RNA specificity landscapes and reveals the mechanism of substrate discrimination by a widespread and essential RNA-processing enzyme.

Biogenesis and Function of Transfer RNA-Related Fragments (tRFs)

Noncoding small RNAs arise from the various un-annotated and annotated regions of the genome. When they arise from annotated genes, the noncoding small RNAs are functionally different from the parent genes. This is a brief review of one class of noncoding small RNAs, tRNA-related fragments (tRFs), which are generated from tRNA. tRFs have been suggested to have roles in cell proliferation, priming of viral reverse transcriptases, regulation of gene expression, RNA processing, modulation of the DNA damage response, tumor suppression, and neurodegeneration.

The Regulation of para-Nitrophenol Degradation in Pseudomonas putida DLL-E4

Pseudomonas putida DLL-E4 can efficiently degrade para-nitrophenol and its intermediate metabolite hydroquinone. The regulation of para-nitrophenol degradation was studied, and PNP induced a global change in the transcriptome of P. putida DLL-E4. When grown on PNP, the wild-type strain exhibited significant downregulation of 2912 genes and upregulation of 845 genes, whereas 2927 genes were downregulated and 891 genes upregulated in a pnpR-deleted strain. Genes related to two non-coding RNAs (ins1 and ins2), para-nitrophenol metabolism, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the outer membrane porin OprB, glucose dehydrogenase Gcd, and carbon catabolite repression were significantly upregulated when cells were grown on para-nitrophenol plus glucose. pnpA, pnpR, pnpC1C2DECX1X2, and pnpR1 are key genes in para-nitrophenol degradation, whereas pnpAb and pnpC1bC2bDbEbCbX1bX2b have lost the ability to degrade para-nitrophenol. Multiple components including transcriptional regulators and other unknown factors regulate para-nitrophenol degradation, and the transcriptional regulation of para-nitrophenol degradation is complex. Glucose utilization was enhanced at early stages of para-nitrophenol supplementation. However, it was inhibited after the total consumption of para-nitrophenol. The addition of glucose led to a significant enhancement in para-nitrophenol degradation and up-regulation in the expression of genes involved in para-nitrophenol degradation and carbon catabolite repression (CCR). It seemed that para-nitrophenol degradation can be regulated by CCR, and relief of CCR might contribute to enhanced para-nitrophenol degradation. In brief, the regulation of para-nitrophenol degradation seems to be controlled by multiple factors and requires further study.

The Diversity of Ribonuclease P: Protein and RNA Catalysts with Analogous Biological Functions

Ribonuclease P (RNase P) is an essential endonuclease responsible for catalyzing 5' end maturation in precursor transfer RNAs. Since its discovery in the 1970s, RNase P enzymes have been identified and studied throughout the three domains of life. Interestingly, RNase P is either RNA-based, with a catalytic RNA subunit, or a protein-only (PRORP) enzyme with differential evolutionary distribution. The available structural data, including the active site data, provides insight into catalysis and substrate recognition. The hydrolytic and kinetic mechanisms of the two forms of RNase P enzymes are similar, yet features unique to the RNA-based and PRORP enzymes are consistent with different evolutionary origins. The various RNase P enzymes, in addition to their primary role in tRNA 5' maturation, catalyze cleavage of a variety of alternative substrates, indicating a diversification of RNase P function in vivo. The review concludes with a discussion of recent advances and interesting research directions in the field.