Replisome-mediated DNA replication

EGFR-mediated HSP70 phosphorylation facilitates PCNA association with chromatin and DNA replication

Efficient DNA replication requires highly coordinated programs for the timely recruitment of protein complexes to DNA replication forks. Defects in this process result in replication stress, which in turn activates cell cycle checkpoints, suppresses cell proliferation and induces apoptosis. In response to persistent cell growth signals that speed up DNA replication processes, cells accelerate the recruitment of DNA replication proteins to avoid DNA replication stress. The mechanisms by which cell growth signals induce processes to facilitate the recruitment of DNA replication proteins onto the replication sites remain unclear. Here, we report that the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) phosphorylates heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) for DNA replication. Such a modification promotes nuclear localization and chromatin association of HSP70, which interacts with the DNA replication coordinator, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). HSP70 subsequently facilitates the loading of PCNA onto chromatin. Knockdown or chemical inhibition of HSP70 suppresses PCNA association with chromatin and impairs DNA synthesis and Okazaki fragment maturation, leading to replicative DNA double-strand breaks and apoptosis. Furthermore, chemical inhibition of HSP70 potentiates EGFR-tyrosine kinase inhibitor-induced tumor reduction in vivo. This work expands our understanding of oncogenesis-induced DNA replication processes and provides a foundation for improved treatments for EGFR-mutated lung cancer by simultaneously targeting HSP70.

Mapping fast DNA polymerase exchange during replication

Despite extensive studies on DNA replication, the exchange mechanisms of DNA polymerase during replication remain unclear. Existing models propose that this exchange is facilitated by protein partners like helicase. Here we present data, employing a combination of mechanical DNA manipulation and single fluorescent protein observation, that reveal DNA polymerase undergoing rapid and autonomous exchange during replication not coordinated by other proteins. The DNA polymerase shows fast unbinding and rebinding dynamics, displaying a preference for either exonuclease or polymerase activity, or pausing events, during each brief binding event. We also observed a 'memory effect' in DNA polymerase rebinding, i.e., the enzyme tends to preserve its prior activity upon reassociation. This effect, potentially linked to the ssDNA/dsDNA junction's conformation, might play a role in regulating binding preference enabling high processivity amidst rapid protein exchange. Taken together, our findings support an autonomous replication model that includes rapid protein exchange, burst of activity, and a 'memory effect' while moving processively forward.

C-terminal Domain of T4 gene 32 Protein Enables Rapid Filament Reorganization and Dissociation

Bacteriophage T4 gene 32 protein (gp32) is a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) binding protein essential for DNA replication. gp32 forms stable protein filaments on ssDNA through cooperative interactions between its core and N-terminal domain. gp32's C-terminal domain (CTD) is believed to primarily help coordinate DNA replication via direct interactions with constituents of the replisome. However, the exact mechanisms of these interactions are not known, and it is unclear how tightly-bound gp32 filaments are readily displaced from ssDNA as required for genomic processing. Here, we utilized truncated gp32 variants to demonstrate a key role of the CTD in regulating gp32 dissociation. Using optical tweezers, we probed the binding and dissociation dynamics of CTD-truncated gp32, *I, to an 8.1 knt ssDNA molecule and compared these measurements with those for full-length gp32. The *I-ssDNA helical filament becomes progressively unwound with increased protein concentration but remains significantly more stable than that of full-length, wild-type gp32. Protein oversaturation, concomitant with filament unwinding, facilitates rapid dissociation of full-length gp32 from across the entire ssDNA segment. In contrast, *I primarily unbinds slowly from only the ends of the cooperative clusters, regardless of the protein density and degree of DNA unwinding. Our results suggest that the CTD may constrain the relative twist angle of proteins within the ssDNA filament such that upon critical unwinding the cooperative interprotein interactions largely vanish, facilitating prompt removal of gp32. We propose a model of CTD-mediated gp32 displacement via internal restructuring of its filament, providing a mechanism for rapid ssDNA clearing during genomic processing.

Autoinhibition of a clamp-loader ATPase revealed by deep mutagenesis and cryo-EM

Clamp loaders are AAA+ ATPases that facilitate high-speed DNA replication. In eukaryotic and bacteriophage clamp loaders, ATP hydrolysis requires interactions between aspartate residues in one protomer, present in conserved 'DEAD-box' motifs, and arginine residues in adjacent protomers. We show that functional defects resulting from a DEAD-box mutation in the T4 bacteriophage clamp loader can be compensated by widely distributed single mutations in the ATPase domain. Using cryo-EM, we discovered an unsuspected inactive conformation of the clamp loader, in which DNA binding is blocked and the catalytic sites are disassembled. Mutations that restore function map to regions of conformational change upon activation, suggesting that these mutations may increase DNA affinity by altering the energetic balance between inactive and active states. Our results show that there are extensive opportunities for evolution to improve catalytic efficiency when an inactive intermediate is involved.

Replication elongates short DNA, reduces sequence bias and develops trimer structure

The origin of molecular evolution required the replication of short oligonucleotides to form longer polymers. Prebiotically plausible oligonucleotide pools tend to contain more of some nucleobases than others. It has been unclear whether this initial bias persists and how it affects replication. To investigate this, we examined the evolution of 12-mer biased short DNA pools using an enzymatic model system. This allowed us to study the long timescales involved in evolution, since it is not yet possible with currently investigated prebiotic replication chemistries. Our analysis using next-generation sequencing from different time points revealed that the initial nucleotide bias of the pool disappeared in the elongated pool after isothermal replication. In contrast, the nucleotide composition at each position in the elongated sequences remained biased and varied with both position and initial bias. Furthermore, we observed the emergence of highly periodic dimer and trimer motifs in the rapidly elongated sequences. This shift in nucleotide composition and the emergence of structure through templated replication could help explain how biased prebiotic pools could undergo molecular evolution and lead to complex functional nucleic acids.

Acquisition, loss, and replication of functional modules promote the genetic diversity of Salmonella bacteriophages

Owing to the threats that Salmonella poses to public health and the abuse of antimicrobials, bacteriophage therapy against Salmonella is experiencing a resurgence. Although several phages have been reported as safe and efficient for controlling Salmonella, the genetic diversity and relatedness among Salmonella phages remain poorly understood. In this study, whole-genome sequences of 91 Salmonella bacteriophages were obtained from the National Center for Biological Information genome database. Phylogenetic analysis, mosaic structure comparisons, gene content analysis, and orthologue group clustering were performed. Phylogenetic analysis revealed four singletons and two major lineages (I-II), including five subdividing clades, of which Salmonella phages belonging to morphologically distinct families were clustered in the same clade. Chimeric structures (n = 31), holin genes (n = 18), lysin genes (n = 66), DNA packaging genes (n = 55), and DNA metabolism genes (n = 24) were present in these phages. Moreover, phages from different subdivided clusters harboured distinct genes associated with host cell lysis, DNA packaging, and DNA metabolism. Notably, phages belonging to morphologically distinct families shared common orthologue groups. Although several functional modules of phages SS1 and SE16 shared > 99% nucleotide sequence identity with phages SI2 and SI23, the major differences between these phages were the absence and replication of functional modules. The data obtained herein revealed the genetic diversity of Salmonella phages at genomic, structural, and gene content levels. The genetic diversity of Salmonella phages is likely owing to the acquisition, loss, and replication of functional modules.

A real-time fluorescent gp32 probe-based assay for monitoring single-stranded DNA-dependent DNA processing enzymes

Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) generated during DNA replication, recombination and damage repair reactions is an important intermediate and ssDNA-binding proteins that binds these intermediates coordinate various DNA metabolic processes. Mechanistic details of these ssDNA-dependent processes can be explored by monitoring the generation and consumption of ssDNA in real time. In this work, a fluorescein-labeled gp32-based sensor was employed to continuously monitor various aspects of ssDNA-dependent DNA replication and recombination processes in real time. The gp32 protein probe displayed high sensitivity and specificity to a variety of ssDNA-dependent processes of T4 phage. Several applications of the probe are illustrated here: the solution dynamics of ssDNA-binding protein, protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions involving gp32 protein and its mode of interaction, ssDNA translocation and protein displacement activities of helicases, primer extension activity of DNA polymerase holoenzyme and nucleoprotein filament formation during DNA recombination. The assay has identified new protein-protein interactions of gp32 during T4 replication and recombination. The fluorescent probe described here can thus be used as a universal probe for monitoring in real time various ssDNA-dependent processes, which is based on a well-characterized and easy-to-express bacteriophage T4 gene 32 protein, gp32.

Structural basis of the T4 bacteriophage primosome assembly and primer synthesis

The T4 bacteriophage gp41 helicase and gp61 primase assemble into a primosome to couple DNA unwinding with RNA primer synthesis for DNA replication. How the primosome is assembled and how the primer length is defined are unclear. Here we report a series of cryo-EM structures of T4 primosome assembly intermediates. We show that gp41 alone is an open spiral, and ssDNA binding triggers a large-scale scissor-like conformational change that drives the ring closure and activates the helicase. Helicase activation exposes a cryptic hydrophobic surface to recruit the gp61 primase. The primase binds the helicase in a bipartite mode in which the N-terminal Zn-binding domain and the C-terminal RNA polymerase domain each contain a helicase-interacting motif that bind to separate gp41 N-terminal hairpin dimers, leading to the assembly of one primase on the helicase hexamer. Our study reveals the T4 primosome assembly process and sheds light on the RNA primer synthesis mechanism.

WGS analysis of two Staphylococcus aureus bacteriophages from sewage in China provides insights into the genetic feature of highly efficient lytic phages

The study of bacteriophages is experiencing a resurgence with the increasing development of antimicrobial resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Nonetheless, the genetic features of highly efficient lytic S. aureus phage remain to be explored. In this study, two lytic S. aureus phages, SapYZU11 and SapYZU15, were isolated from sewage samples from Yangzhou, China. The phage morphology, one-step growth, host spectrum and lytic activity of these phages were examined, and their whole-genome sequences were analysed and compared with 280 published genomes of staphylococcal phages. The structural organisation and genetic contents of SapYZU11 and SapYZU15 were investigated. The Podoviridae phage SapYZU11 and Herelleviridae phage SapYZU15 effectively lysed all of the 53 S. aureus strains isolated from various sources. However, SapYZU15 exhibited a shorter latent period, larger burst size and stronger bactericidal ability with an anti-bacterial rate of approximately 99.9999% for 24 h. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Herelleviridae phages formed the most ancestral clades and the S. aureus Podoviridae phages were clustered in the staphylococcal Siphoviridae phage clade. Moreover, phages in different morphology families contain distinct types of genes associated with host cell lysis, DNA packaging and lysogeny. Notably, SapYZU15 harboured 13 DNA metabolism-related genes, 5 lysin genes, 1 holin gene and 1 DNA packaging gene. The data suggest that S. aureus Podoviridae and Siphoviridae phages originated from staphylococcal Herelleviridae phages, and the module exchange of S. aureus phages occurred in the same morphology family. Moreover, the extraordinary lytic capacity of SapYZU15 was likely due to the presence of specific genes associated with DNA replication, DNA packaging and the lytic cycle.

Structural basis of the T4 bacteriophage primosome assembly and primer synthesis

The T4 bacteriophage gp41 helicase and gp61 primase assemble into a primosome complex to couple DNA unwinding with RNA primer synthesis for DNA replication. How a primosome is assembled and how the length of the RNA primer is defined in the T4 bacteriophage, or in any model system, are unclear. Here we report a series of cryo-EM structures of T4 primosome assembly intermediates at resolutions up to 2.7 Å. We show that the gp41 helicase is an open spiral in the absence of ssDNA, and ssDNA binding triggers a large-scale scissor-like conformational change that drives the open spiral to a closed ring that activates the helicase. We found that the activation of the gp41 helicase exposes a cryptic hydrophobic primase-binding surface allowing for the recruitment of the gp61 primase. The primase binds the gp41 helicase in a bipartite mode in which the N-terminal Zn-binding domain (ZBD) and the C-terminal RNA polymerase domain (RPD) each contain a helicase-interacting motif (HIM1 and HIM2, respectively) that bind to separate gp41 N-terminal hairpin dimers, leading to the assembly of one primase on the helicase hexamer. Based on two observed primosome conformations - one in a DNA-scanning mode and the other in a post RNA primer-synthesis mode - we suggest that the linker loop between the gp61 ZBD and RPD contributes to the T4 pentaribonucleotide primer. Our study reveals T4 primosome assembly process and sheds light on RNA primer synthesis mechanism.

Strand Asymmetries Across Genomic Processes

Across biological systems, a number of genomic processes, including transcription, replication, DNA repair, and transcription factor binding, display intrinsic directionalities. These directionalities are reflected in the asymmetric distribution of nucleotides, motifs, genes, transposon integration sites, and other functional elements across the two complementary strands. Strand asymmetries, including GC skews and mutational biases, have shaped the nucleotide composition of diverse organisms. The investigation of strand asymmetries often serves as a method to understand underlying biological mechanisms, including protein binding preferences, transcription factor interactions, retrotransposition, DNA damage and repair preferences, transcription-replication collisions, and mutagenesis mechanisms. Research into this subject also enables the identification of functional genomic sites, such as replication origins and transcription start sites. Improvements in our ability to detect and quantify DNA strand asymmetries will provide insights into diverse functionalities of the genome, the contribution of different mutational mechanisms in germline and somatic mutagenesis, and our knowledge of genome instability and evolution, which all have significant clinical implications in human disease, including cancer. In this review, we describe key developments that have been made across the field of genomic strand asymmetries, as well as the discovery of associated mechanisms.

Abundant and cosmopolitan lineage of cyanopodoviruses lacking a DNA polymerase gene

Cyanopodoviruses affect the mortality and population dynamics of the unicellular picocyanobacteria Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus, the dominant primary producers in the oceans. Known cyanopodoviruses all contain the DNA polymerase gene (DNA pol) that is important for phage DNA replication and widely used in field quantification and diversity studies. However, we isolated 18 cyanopodoviruses without identifiable DNA pol. They form a new MPP-C clade that was separated from the existing MPP-A, MPP-B, and P-RSP2 clades. The MPP-C phages have the smallest genomes (37.3-37.9 kb) among sequenced cyanophages, and show longer latent periods than the MPP-B phages. Metagenomic reads of both clades are highly abundant in surface waters, but the MPP-C phages show higher relative abundance in surface waters than in deeper waters, while MPP-B phages have higher relative abundance in deeper waters. Our study reveals that cyanophages with distinct genomic contents and infection kinetics can exhibit different depth profiles in the oceans.

Metabolic modulation of transcription: The role of one-carbon metabolism

While it is well known that expression levels of metabolic enzymes regulate the metabolic state of the cell, there is mounting evidence that the converse is also true, that metabolite levels themselves can modulate gene expression via epigenetic modifications and transcriptional regulation. Here we focus on the one-carbon metabolic pathway, which provides the essential building blocks of many classes of biomolecules, including purine nucleotides, thymidylate, serine, and methionine. We review the epigenetic roles of one-carbon metabolic enzymes and their associated metabolites and introduce an interactive computational resource that places enzyme essentiality in the context of metabolic pathway topology. Therefore, we briefly discuss examples of metabolic condensates and higher-order complexes of metabolic enzymes downstream of one-carbon metabolism. We speculate that they may be required to the formation of transcriptional condensates and gene expression control. Finally, we discuss new ways to exploit metabolic pathway compartmentalization to selectively target these enzymes in cancer.

Mechanistic investigation of human maturation of Okazaki fragments reveals slow kinetics

The final steps of lagging strand synthesis induce maturation of Okazaki fragments via removal of the RNA primers and ligation. Iterative cycles between Polymerase δ (Polδ) and Flap endonuclease-1 (FEN1) remove the primer, with an intermediary nick structure generated for each cycle. Here, we show that human Polδ is inefficient in releasing the nick product from FEN1, resulting in non-processive and remarkably slow RNA removal. Ligase 1 (Lig1) can release the nick from FEN1 and actively drive the reaction toward ligation. These mechanisms are coordinated by PCNA, which encircles DNA, and dynamically recruits Polδ, FEN1, and Lig1 to compete for their substrates. Our findings call for investigating additional pathways that may accelerate RNA removal in human cells, such as RNA pre-removal by RNase Hs, which, as demonstrated herein, enhances the maturation rate ~10-fold. They also suggest that FEN1 may attenuate the various activities of Polδ during DNA repair and recombination.

Whole-Genome Analysis Reveals That Bacteriophages Promote Environmental Adaptation of Staphylococcus aureus via Gene Exchange, Acquisition, and Loss

The study of bacteriophages is experiencing a resurgence owing to their antibacterial efficacy, lack of side effects, and low production cost. Nonetheless, the interactions between Staphylococcus aureus bacteriophages and their hosts remain unexplored. In this study, whole-genome sequences of 188 S. aureus bacteriophages—20 Podoviridae, 56 Herelleviridae, and 112 Siphoviridae—were obtained from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, USA) genome database. A phylogenetic tree was constructed to estimate their genetic relatedness using single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis. Comparative analysis was performed to investigate the structural diversity and ortholog groups in the subdividing clusters. Mosaic structures and gene content were compared in relation to phylogeny. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the bacteriophages could be distinguished into three lineages (I–III), including nine subdividing clusters and seven singletons. The subdividing clusters shared similar mosaic structures and core ortholog clusters, including the genes involved in bacteriophage morphogenesis and DNA packaging. Notably, several functional modules of bacteriophages 187 and 2368A shared more than 95% nucleotide sequence identity with prophages in the S. aureus strain RJ1267 and the Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strain SP_11306_4, whereas other modules exhibited little nucleotide sequence similarity. Moreover, the cluster phages shared similar types of holins, lysins, and DNA packaging genes and harbored diverse genes associated with DNA replication and virulence. The data suggested that the genetic diversity of S. aureus bacteriophages was likely due to gene replacement, acquisition, and loss among staphylococcal phages, which may have crossed species barriers. Moreover, frequent module exchanges likely occurred exclusively among the subdividing cluster phages. We hypothesize that during evolution, the S. aureus phages enhanced their DNA replication in host cells and the adaptive environment of their host.

DNA Polymerase-Parental DNA Interaction Is Essential for Helicase-Polymerase Coupling during Bacteriophage T7 DNA Replication

DNA helicase and polymerase work cooperatively at the replication fork to perform leading-strand DNA synthesis. It was believed that the helicase migrates to the forefront of the replication fork where it unwinds the duplex to provide templates for DNA polymerases. However, the molecular basis of the helicase-polymerase coupling is not fully understood. The recently elucidated T7 replisome structure suggests that the helicase and polymerase sandwich parental DNA and each enzyme pulls a daughter strand in opposite directions. Interestingly, the T7 polymerase, but not the helicase, carries the parental DNA with a positively charged cleft and stacks at the fork opening using a β-hairpin loop. Here, we created and characterized T7 polymerases each with a perturbed β-hairpin loop and positively charged cleft. Mutations on both structural elements significantly reduced the strand-displacement synthesis by T7 polymerase but had only a minor effect on DNA synthesis performed against a linear DNA substrate. Moreover, the aforementioned mutations eliminated synergistic helicase-polymerase binding and unwinding at the DNA fork and processive fork progressions. Thus, our data suggested that T7 polymerase plays a dominant role in helicase-polymerase coupling and replisome progression.

Bacteriophage-Encoded DNA Polymerases-Beyond the Traditional View of Polymerase Activities

DNA polymerases are enzymes capable of synthesizing DNA. They are involved in replication of genomes of all cellular organisms as well as in processes of DNA repair and genetic recombination. However, DNA polymerases can also be encoded by viruses, including bacteriophages, and such enzymes are involved in viral DNA replication. DNA synthesizing enzymes are grouped in several families according to their structures and functions. Nevertheless, there are examples of bacteriophage-encoded DNA polymerases which are significantly different from other known enzymes capable of catalyzing synthesis of DNA. These differences are both structural and functional, indicating a huge biodiversity of bacteriophages and specific properties of their enzymes which had to evolve under certain conditions, selecting unusual properties of the enzymes which are nonetheless crucial for survival of these viruses, propagating as special kinds of obligatory parasites. In this review, we present a brief overview on DNA polymerases, and then we discuss unusual properties of different bacteriophage-encoded enzymes, such as those able to initiate DNA synthesis using the protein-priming mechanisms or even start this process without any primer, as well as able to incorporate untypical nucleotides. Apart from being extremely interesting examples of biochemical biodiversity, bacteriophage-encoded DNA polymerases can also be useful tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology.

Quantitative methods to study helicase, DNA polymerase, and exonuclease coupling during DNA replication

Genome replication is accomplished by highly regulated activities of enzymes in a multi-protein complex called the replisome. Two major enzymes, DNA polymerase and helicase, catalyze continuous DNA synthesis on the leading strand of the parental DNA duplex while the lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously. The helicase and DNA polymerase on their own are catalytically inefficient and weak motors for unwinding/replicating double-stranded DNA. However, when a helicase and DNA polymerase are functionally and physically coupled, they catalyze fast and highly processive leading strand DNA synthesis. DNA polymerase has a 3'-5' exonuclease activity, which removes nucleotides misincorporated in the nascent DNA. DNA synthesis kinetics, processivity, and accuracy are governed by the interplay of the helicase, DNA polymerase, and exonuclease activities within the replisome. This chapter describes quantitative biochemical and biophysical methods to study the coupling of these three critical activities during DNA replication. The methods include real-time quantitation of kinetics of DNA unwinding-synthesis by a coupled helicase-DNA polymerase complex, a 2-aminopurine fluorescence-based assay to map the precise positions of helicase and DNA polymerase with respect to the replication fork junction, and a radiometric assay to study the coupling of DNA polymerase, exonuclease, and helicase activities during processive leading strand DNA synthesis. These methods are presented here with bacteriophage T7 replication proteins as an example but can be applied to other systems with appropriate modifications.

Accuracy and speed of elongation in a minimal model of DNA replication

Being a dual purpose enzyme, the DNA polymerase is responsible for elongation of the newly formed DNA strand as well as cleaving the erroneous growth in case of a misincorporation. The efficiency of replication depends on the coordination of the polymerization and exonuclease activity of DNA polymerase. Here, we propose and analyze a minimal kinetic model of DNA replication and determine exact expressions for the velocity of elongation and the accuracy of replication. We first analyze the case without exonuclease activity. In that case, accuracy is determined by a kinetic competition between stepping and unbinding, with discrimination between correct and incorrect nucleotides in both transitions. We then include exonuclease activity and ask how different modes of additional discrimination in the exonuclease pathway can improve the accuracy while limiting the detrimental effect of exonuclease on the speed of replication. In this way, we ask how the kinetic parameters of the model have to be set to coordinate the two activities of the enzyme for high accuracy and high speed. The analysis also shows that the design of a replication system does not universally have to follow the speed-accuracy trade-off rule, although it does in the biologically realized parameter range. The accuracy of the process is mainly controlled by the crucial role of stepping after erroneous incorporation, which has impact on both polymerase and exonuclease activities of DNA polymerase.

DNA Helicase-Polymerase Coupling in Bacteriophage DNA Replication

Bacteriophages have long been model systems to study the molecular mechanisms of DNA replication. During DNA replication, a DNA helicase and a DNA polymerase cooperatively unwind the parental DNA. By surveying recent data from three bacteriophage replication systems, we summarized the mechanistic basis of DNA replication by helicases and polymerases. Kinetic data have suggested that a polymerase or a helicase alone is a passive motor that is sensitive to the base-pairing energy of the DNA. When coupled together, the helicase-polymerase complex is able to unwind DNA actively. In bacteriophage T7, helicase and polymerase reside right at the replication fork where the parental DNA is separated into two daughter strands. The two motors pull the two daughter strands to opposite directions, while the polymerase provides a separation pin to split the fork. Although independently evolved and containing different replisome components, bacteriophage T4 replisome shares mechanistic features of Hel-Pol coupling that are similar to T7. Interestingly, in bacteriophages with a limited size of genome like Φ29, DNA polymerase itself can form a tunnel-like structure, which encircles the DNA template strand and facilitates strand displacement synthesis in the absence of a helicase. Studies on bacteriophage replication provide implications for the more complicated replication systems in bacteria, archaeal, and eukaryotic systems, as well as the RNA genome replication in RNA viruses.

DNA replication: In vitro single-molecule manipulation data analysis and models

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Data analysis allows to extract information from the noisy single-molecule data.

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Models provide insight in the underlying biochemical processes.

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Ligands can activate or inhibit DNA replication and DNA unwinding.

DNA replication is a key biochemical process of the cell cycle. In the last years, analysis of in vitro single-molecule DNA replication events has provided new information that cannot be obtained with ensembles studies. Here, we introduce crucial techniques for the proper analysis and modelling of DNA replication in vitro single-molecule manipulation data. Specifically, we review some of the main methods to analyze and model the real-time kinetics of the two main molecular motors of the replisome: DNA polymerase and DNA helicase. Our goal is to facilitate access to and understanding of these techniques to promotetheir use in the study of DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A proper analysis of single-molecule data is crucial to obtain a detailed picture of, among others, the kinetics rates, equilibrium contants and conformational changes of the system under study. The techniques presented here have been used or can be adapted to study the operation of other proteins involved in nucleic acids metabolism.

Processive RNA polymerization and promoter recognition in an RNA World

Early life is thought to have required the self-replication of RNA by RNA replicases. However, how such replicases evolved and subsequently enabled gene expression remains largely unexplored. We engineered and selected a holopolymerase ribozyme that uses a sigma factor-like specificity primer to first recognize an RNA promoter sequence and then, in a second step, rearrange to a processive elongation form. Using its own sequence, the polymerase can also program itself to polymerize from certain RNA promoters and not others. This selective promoter-based polymerization could allow an RNA replicase ribozyme to define "self" from "nonself," an important development for the avoidance of replicative parasites. Moreover, the clamp-like mechanism of this polymerase could eventually enable strand invasion, a critical requirement for replication in the early evolution of life.

Single-Molecule Dynamics at a Bacterial Replication Fork after Nutritional Downshift or Chemically Induced Block in Replication

Replication forks must respond to changes in nutrient conditions, especially in bacterial cells. By investigating the single-molecule dynamics of replicative helicase DnaC, DNA primase DnaG, and lagging-strand polymerase DnaE in the model bacterium Bacillus subtilis, we show that proteins react differently to stress conditions in response to transient replication blocks due to DNA damage, to inhibition of the replicative polymerase, or to downshift of serine availability. DnaG appears to be recruited to the forks by a diffusion and capture mechanism, becomes more statically associated after the arrest of polymerase, but binds less frequently after fork blocks due to DNA damage or to nutritional downshift. These results indicate that binding of the alarmone (p)ppGpp due to stringent response prevents DnaG from binding to forks rather than blocking bound primase. Dissimilar behavior of DnaG and DnaE suggests that both proteins are recruited independently to the forks rather than jointly. Turnover of all three proteins was increased during replication block after nutritional downshift, different from the situation due to DNA damage or polymerase inhibition, showing high plasticity of forks in response to different stress conditions. Forks persisted during all stress conditions, apparently ensuring rapid return to replication extension.IMPORTANCE All cells need to adjust DNA replication, which is achieved by a well-orchestrated multiprotein complex, in response to changes in physiological and environmental conditions. For replication forks, it is extremely challenging to meet with conditions where amino acids are rapidly depleted from cells, called the stringent response, to deal with the inhibition of one of the centrally involved proteins or with DNA modifications that arrest the progression of forks. By tracking helicase (DnaC), primase (DnaG), and polymerase (DnaE), central proteins of Bacillus subtilis replication forks, at a single molecule level in real time, we found that interactions of the three proteins with replication forks change in different manners under different stress conditions, revealing an intriguing plasticity of replication forks in dealing with replication obstacles. We have devised a new tool to determine rates of exchange between static movement (binding to a much larger complex) and free diffusion, showing that during stringent response, all proteins have highly increased exchange rates, slowing down overall replication, while inactivation of polymerase or replication roadblocks leaves forks largely intact, allowing rapid restart once obstacles are removed.

Engineering Micrometer-Sized DNA Tracks for High-Speed DNA Synthesis and Biosensing

φ29 DNA polymerase (Polφ29) is capable of synthesizing long-chain single-stranded (ss) DNA molecules by copying the sequence of a small ss circular DNA template (ssCDT) in a process known as rolling circle amplification (RCA). The use of a ssCDT in RCA, however, comes with a key drawback: the rate of DNA synthesis is significantly reduced. We hypothesize that this issue can be overcome using a very long linear ssDNA template with a repeating sequence. To test this idea, we engineered a DNA assembly, which we denote "micrometer-sized DNA track" (μDT). This μDT, with an average length of ≈13.5 μm, is made of a long chain DNA with a primer-binding domain at its 3' end and ≈1000 repeating sequence units at its 5' end, each carrying a DNA anchor. We find that Polφ29 copies μDT at a speed ≈5-time faster than it does a related ssCDT. We use this to design a simple all-in-one printed paper device for rapid and sensitive detection of microRNA let-7. This paper sensor is capable of detecting 1 pM let-7a in 10 minutes.

Polymerization and editing modes of a high-fidelity DNA polymerase are linked by a well-defined path

Proofreading by replicative DNA polymerases is a fundamental mechanism ensuring DNA replication fidelity. In proofreading, mis-incorporated nucleotides are excised through the 3'-5' exonuclease activity of the DNA polymerase holoenzyme. The exonuclease site is distal from the polymerization site, imposing stringent structural and kinetic requirements for efficient primer strand transfer. Yet, the molecular mechanism of this transfer is not known. Here we employ molecular simulations using recent cryo-EM structures and biochemical analyses to delineate an optimal free energy path connecting the polymerization and exonuclease states of E. coli replicative DNA polymerase Pol III. We identify structures for all intermediates, in which the transitioning primer strand is stabilized by conserved Pol III residues along the fingers, thumb and exonuclease domains. We demonstrate switching kinetics on a tens of milliseconds timescale and unveil a complete pol-to-exo switching mechanism, validated by targeted mutational experiments.

Strand displacement DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase gp90 exo- of Pseudomonas aeruginosa phage 1

Strand displacement DNA synthesis is essential for DNA replication. Gp90, the sole DNA polymerase of Pseudomonas aeruginosa phage 1, can bypass multiply DNA lesions. However, whether it can perform strand displacement synthesis is still unknown. In this work, we found that gp90 exo^- could perform strand displacement synthesis, albeit its activity and processivity were lower than those of primer extension. Gp90 exo^- itself could not unwind Y-shaped or fork DNA. Tail and gap at DNA fork were necessary for efficient synthesis. High GC content obviously inhibited strand displacement synthesis. Consecutive GC sequence at the entrance of fork showed more inhibition effect on DNA synthesis than that in the downstream DNA fork. The fraction of productive polymerase and DNA complex (A values) was higher for fork than gap; while their average extension rates (k_p values) were similar. However, both A and k_p values were lower than those for the primer/template (P/T) substrate. The binding of gp90 exo^- to fork was tighter than P/T or gap in the absence of dATP. In the presence of dATP to form ternary complex, the binding affinity of gp90 exo^- to P/T or gap was increased compared with that in the binary complex. Abasic site, 8-oxoG, and O⁶-MeG inhibited and even blocked strand displacement synthesis. This work shows that gp90 exo^- could perform strand displacement DNA synthesis at DNA fork, discovering the presence of new functions of PaP1 DNA polymerase in DNA replication and propagation of PaP1.

Non-enzymatic primer extension with strand displacement

Non-enzymatic RNA self-replication is integral to the emergence of the 'RNA World'. Despite considerable progress in non-enzymatic template copying, demonstrating a full replication cycle remains challenging due to the difficulty of separating the strands of the product duplex. Here, we report a prebiotically plausible approach to strand displacement synthesis in which short 'invader' oligonucleotides unwind an RNA duplex through a toehold/branch migration mechanism, allowing non-enzymatic primer extension on a template that was previously occupied by its complementary strand. Kinetic studies of single-step reactions suggest that following invader binding, branch migration results in a 2:3 partition of the template between open and closed states. Finally, we demonstrate continued primer extension with strand displacement by employing activated 3'-aminonucleotides, a more reactive proxy for ribonucleotides. Our study suggests that complete cycles of non-enzymatic replication of the primordial genetic material may have been facilitated by short RNA oligonucleotides.

Replisome structure suggests mechanism for continuous fork progression and post-replication repair

What happens to DNA replication when it encounters a damaged or nicked DNA template has been under investigation for five decades. Initially it was thought that DNA polymerase, and thus the replication-fork progression, would stall at road blocks. After the discovery of replication-fork helicase and replication re-initiation factors by the 1990s, it became clear that the replisome can "skip" impasses and finish replication with single-stranded gaps and double-strand breaks in the product DNA. But the mechanism for continuous fork progression after encountering roadblocks is entangled with translesion synthesis, replication fork reversal and recombination repair. The recently determined structure of the bacteriophage T7 replisome offers the first glimpse of how helicase, primase, leading-and lagging-strand DNA polymerases are organized around a DNA replication fork. The tightly coupled leading-strand polymerase and lagging-strand helicase provides a scaffold to consolidate data accumulated over the past five decades and offers a fresh perspective on how the replisome may skip lesions and complete discontinuous DNA synthesis. Comparison of the independently evolved bacterial and eukaryotic replisomes suggests that repair of discontinuous DNA synthesis occurs post replication in both.

Arabidopsis thaliana organelles mimic the T7 phage DNA replisome with specific interactions between Twinkle protein and DNA polymerases Pol1A and Pol1B

BACKGROUND

Plant chloroplasts and mitochondria utilize nuclear encoded proteins to replicate their DNA. These proteins are purposely built for replication in the organelle environment and are distinct from those involved in replication of the nuclear genome. These organelle-localized proteins have ancestral roots in bacterial and bacteriophage genes, supporting the endosymbiotic theory of their origin. We examined the interactions between three of these proteins from Arabidopsis thaliana: a DNA helicase-primase similar to bacteriophage T7 gp4 protein and animal mitochondrial Twinkle, and two DNA polymerases, Pol1A and Pol1B. We used a three-pronged approach to analyze the interactions, including Yeast-two-hybrid analysis, Direct Coupling Analysis (DCA), and thermophoresis.

RESULTS

Yeast-two-hybrid analysis reveals residues 120-295 of Twinkle as the minimal region that can still interact with Pol1A or Pol1B. This region is a part of the primase domain of the protein and slightly overlaps the zinc-finger and RNA polymerase subdomains located within. Additionally, we observed that Arabidopsis Twinkle interacts much more strongly with Pol1A versus Pol1B. Thermophoresis also confirms that the primase domain of Twinkle has higher binding affinity than any other region of the protein. Direct-Coupling-Analysis identified specific residues in Twinkle and the DNA polymerases critical to positive interaction between the two proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

The interaction of Twinkle with Pol1A or Pol1B mimics the minimal DNA replisomes of T7 phage and those present in mammalian mitochondria. However, while T7 and mammals absolutely require their homolog of Twinkle DNA helicase-primase, Arabidopsis Twinkle mutants are seemingly unaffected by this loss. This implies that while Arabidopsis mitochondria mimic minimal replisomes from T7 and mammalian mitochondria, there is an extra level of redundancy specific to loss of Twinkle function.

Recognition of a Key Anchor Residue by a Conserved Hydrophobic Pocket Ensures Subunit Interface Integrity in DNA Clamps

Sliding clamp proteins encircle duplex DNA and are involved in processive DNA replication and the DNA damage response. Clamp proteins are ring-shaped oligomers (dimers or trimers) and are loaded onto DNA by an ATP-dependent clamp loader complex that ruptures the interface between two adjacent subunits. Here we measured the solution dynamics of the human clamp protein, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, by monitoring the change in the fluorescence of a site-specifically labeled. To unravel the origins of clamp subunit interface stability, we carried out comprehensive comparative analysis of the interfaces of seven sliding clamps. We used computational modeling (molecular dynamic simulations and MM/GBSA binding energy decomposition analyses) to identify conserved networks of hydrophobic residues critical for clamp stability and ring-opening dynamics. The hydrophobic network is shared among clamp proteins and exhibits a "key in a keyhole" pattern where a bulky aromatic residue from one clamp subunit is anchored into a hydrophobic pocket of the opposing subunit. Bioinformatics and dynamic network analyses showed that this oligomeric latch is conserved across DNA sliding clamps from all domains of life and dictates the dynamics of clamp opening and closing.

Rescuing Replication from Barriers: Mechanistic Insights from Single-Molecule Studies

To prevent replication failure due to fork barriers, several mechanisms have evolved to restart arrested forks independent of the origin of replication. Our understanding of these mechanisms that underlie replication reactivation has been aided through unique dynamic perspectives offered by single-molecule techniques. These techniques, such as optical tweezers, magnetic tweezers, and fluorescence-based methods, allow researchers to monitor the unwinding of DNA by helicase, nucleotide incorporation during polymerase synthesis, and replication fork progression in real time. In addition, they offer the ability to distinguish DNA intermediates after obstacles to replication at high spatial and temporal resolutions, providing new insights into the replication reactivation mechanisms. These and other highlights of single-molecule techniques and remarkable studies on the recovery of the replication fork from barriers will be discussed in this review.

Single-Molecule FRET Analysis of Replicative Helicases

Over the recent years single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) technique has proven to be one of the most powerful tools for revealing mechanistic insights into helicase activities. Here we describe details of single-molecule FRET assays for probing DNA unwinding activities as well as functional dynamics by replicative helicases in real time. The ability of smFRET to measure the behavior of biomolecules at a nanometer scale enabled us to address how the leading and lagging strand synthesis are coordinated during DNA replication, to resolve DNA unwinding steps of Bacteriophage T7 helicase, and to observe heterogeneous unwinding patterns modulated by the DNA binding domain of E1 helicase. These single-molecule FRET assays are generally applicable to other replicative and nonreplicative hexameric helicases.

On an algorithmic definition for the components of the minimal cell

Living cells are highly complex systems comprising a multitude of elements that are engaged in the many convoluted processes observed during the cell cycle. However, not all elements and processes are essential for cell survival and reproduction under steady-state environmental conditions. To distinguish between essential from expendable cell components and thus define the ‘minimal cell’ and the corresponding ‘minimal genome’, we postulate that the synthesis of all cell elements can be represented as a finite set of binary operators, and within this framework we show that cell elements that depend on their previous existence to be synthesized are those that are essential for cell survival. An algorithm to distinguish essential cell elements is presented and demonstrated within an interactome. Data and functions implementing the algorithm are given as supporting information. We expect that this algorithmic approach will lead to the determination of the complete interactome of the minimal cell, which could then be experimentally validated. The assumptions behind this hypothesis as well as its consequences for experimental and theoretical biology are discussed.

Induction of Apoptosis in Metastatic Breast Cancer Cells: XV. Downregulation of DNA Polymerase-α - Helicase Complex (Replisomes) and Glyco-Genes

In normal and cancer cells, successful cell division requires accurate duplication of chromosomal DNA. All cells require a multiprotein DNA duplication system (replisomes) for their existence. However, death of normal cells in our body occurs through the apoptotic process. During apoptotic process several crucial genes are downregulated with the upregulation of caspase pathways, leading to ultimate degradation of genomic DNA. In metastatic cancer cells (SKBR-3, MCF -7, and MDA-462), this process is inhibited to achieve immortality as well as overexpression of the enzymes for the synthesis of marker molecules. It is believed that the GSL of the lacto family such as Le^X, SA-Le^X, Le^Y, Le^a, and Le^b are markers on the human colon and breast cancer cells. Recently, we have characterized that a few apoptotic chemicals (cis-platin, L-PPMP, D-PDMP, GD3 ganglioside, GD1b ganglioside, betulinic acid, tamoxifen, and melphalan) in low doses kill metastatic breast cancer cells. The apoptosis-inducing agent (e.g., cis-platin) showed inhibition of DNA polymerase/helicase (part of the replisomes) and also modulated (positively) a few glycolipid-glycosyltransferase (GSL-GLTs) transcriptions in the early stages (within 2 h after treatment) of apoptosis. These Lc-family GSLs are also present on the surfaces of human breast and colon carcinoma cells. It is advantageous to deliver these apoptotic chemicals through the metastatic cell surfaces containing high concentration of marker glycolipids (Lc-GSLs). Targeted application of apoptotic chemicals (in micro scale) to kill the cancer cells would be an ideal way to inhibit the metastatic growth of both breast and colon cancer cells. It was observed in three different breast cancer lines (SKBR-3, MDA-468, and MCF-7) that in 2 h very little apoptotic process had started, but predominant biochemical changes (including inactivation of replisomes) started between 6 and 24 h of the drug treatments. The contents of replisomes (replisomal complexes) during induction of apoptosis are not known. It is known that DNA helicase activities (major proteins catalyze the melting of dsDNA strands) change during apoptotic induction process. Previously DNA Helicase-III was characterized as a component of the replication complexes isolated from carcinoma cells and normal rapid growing embryonic chicken brain cells. Helicase activities were assayed by a novel method (combined immunoprecipitation-ROME assay), and DNA polymerase-alpha activities were determined by regular chain extension of nicked "ACT-DNA," by determining values obtained from +/- aphidicolin added to the incubation mixtures. Very little is known about the stability of the "replication complexes" (or replisomes) during the apoptotic process. DNA helicases are motor proteins that catalyze the melting of genomic DNA during replication, repair, and recombination processes. In all three breast carcinoma cell lines (SKBR-3, MCF-7, and MDA-468), a common trend, decrease of activities of DNA polymerase-alpha and Helicase-III (estimated and detected with a polyclonal antibody), was observed, after cis-platin- and L-PPMP-induced apoptosis. Previously our laboratory has documented downregulation (within 24-48 h) of several GSL-GLTs with these apoptotic reagents in breast and colon cancer cells also. Perhaps induced apoptosis would improve the prognosis in metastatic breast and colon cancer patients.

Reconstitution of a eukaryotic replisome reveals the mechanism of asymmetric distribution of DNA polymerases

Eukaryotes require 3 DNA polymerases for normal replisome operations, DNA polymerases (Pol) α, delta and epsilon. Recent biochemical and structural studies support the asymmetric use of these polymerases on the leading and lagging strands. Pol epsilon interacts with the 11-subunit CMG helicase, forming a 15-protein leading strand complex that acts processively in leading strand synthesis in vitro, but Pol epsilon is inactive on the lagging strand. The opposite results are observed for Pol delta with CMG. Pol delta is highly active on the lagging strand in vitro, but has only feeble activity with CMG on the leading strand. Pol α also functions with CMG to prime both strands, and is even capable of extending both strands with CMG present. However, extensive DNA synthesis by Pol α is sharply curtailed by the presence of either Pol epsilon or Pol delta, which limits the role of the low fidelity Pol α to the initial priming of synthesis.

Action of CMG with strand-specific DNA blocks supports an internal unwinding mode for the eukaryotic replicative helicase

Replicative helicases are ring-shaped hexamers that encircle DNA for duplex unwinding. The currently accepted view of hexameric helicase function is by steric exclusion, where the helicase encircles one DNA strand and excludes the other, acting as a wedge with an external DNA unwinding point during translocation. Accordingly, strand-specific blocks only affect these helicases when placed on the tracking strand, not the excluded strand. We examined the effect of blocks on the eukaryotic CMG and, contrary to expectations, blocks on either strand inhibit CMG unwinding. A recent cryoEM structure of yeast CMG shows that duplex DNA enters the helicase and unwinding occurs in the central channel. The results of this report inform important aspects of the structure, and we propose that CMG functions by a modified steric exclusion process in which both strands enter the helicase and the duplex unwinding point is internal, followed by exclusion of the non-tracking strand.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.23449.001

Quality control mechanisms exclude incorrect polymerases from the eukaryotic replication fork

The eukaryotic genome is primarily replicated by two DNA polymerases, Pol ε and Pol δ, that function on the leading and lagging strands, respectively. Previous studies have established recruitment mechanisms whereby Cdc45-Mcm2-7-GINS (CMG) helicase binds Pol ε and tethers it to the leading strand, and PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen) binds tightly to Pol δ and recruits it to the lagging strand. The current report identifies quality control mechanisms that exclude the improper polymerase from a particular strand. We find that the replication factor C (RFC) clamp loader specifically inhibits Pol ε on the lagging strand, and CMG protects Pol ε against RFC inhibition on the leading strand. Previous studies show that Pol δ is slow and distributive with CMG on the leading strand. However, Saccharomyces cerevisiae Pol δ-PCNA is a rapid and processive enzyme, suggesting that CMG may bind and alter Pol δ activity or position it on the lagging strand. Measurements of polymerase binding to CMG demonstrate Pol ε binds CMG with a K_d value of 12 nM, but Pol δ binding CMG is undetectable. Pol δ, like bacterial replicases, undergoes collision release upon completing replication, and we propose Pol δ-PCNA collides with the slower CMG, and in the absence of a stabilizing Pol δ-CMG interaction, the collision release process is triggered, ejecting Pol δ on the leading strand. Hence, by eviction of incorrect polymerases at the fork, the clamp machinery directs quality control on the lagging strand and CMG enforces quality control on the leading strand.

The Eukaryotic Replisome Goes Under the Microscope

The machinery at the eukaryotic replication fork has seen many new structural advances using electron microscopy and crystallography. Recent structures of eukaryotic replisome components include the Mcm2-7 complex, the CMG helicase, DNA polymerases, a Ctf4 trimer hub and the first look at a core replisome of 20 different proteins containing the helicase, primase, leading polymerase and a lagging strand polymerase. The eukaryotic core replisome shows an unanticipated architecture, with one polymerase sitting above the helicase and the other below. Additionally, structures of Mcm2 bound to an H3/H4 tetramer suggest a direct role of the replisome in handling nucleosomes, which are important to DNA organization and gene regulation. This review provides a summary of some of the many recent advances in the structure of the eukaryotic replisome.

Radical polymerization by a supramolecular catalyst: cyclodextrin with a RAFT reagent

Supramolecular catalysts have received a great deal of attention because they improve the selectivity and efficiency of reactions. Catalysts with host molecules exhibit specific reaction properties and recognize substrates via host-guest interactions. Here, we examined radical polymerization reactions with a chain transfer agent (CTA) that has α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) as a host molecule (α-CD-CTA). Prior to the polymerization of N,N-dimethylacrylamide (DMA), we investigated the complex formation of α-CD with DMA. Single X-ray analysis demonstrated that α-CD includes DMA inside its cavity. When DMA was polymerized in the presence of α-CD-CTA using 2,2'-azobis[2-(2-imidazolin-2-yl)propane dihydrochloride (VA-044) as an initiator in an aqueous solution, poly(DMA) was obtained in good yield and with narrow molecular weight distribution. In contrast, the polymerization of DMA without α-CD-CTA produced more widely distributed polymers. In the presence of 1,6-hexanediol (C6 diol) which works as a competitive molecule by being included in the α-CD cavity, the reaction yield was lower than that without C6 diol.

Single-Molecule Optical-Trapping Techniques to Study Molecular Mechanisms of a Replisome

The replisome is a multiprotein molecular machinery responsible for the replication of DNA. It is composed of several specialized proteins each with dedicated enzymatic activities, and in particular, helicase unwinds double-stranded DNA and DNA polymerase catalyzes the synthesis of DNA. Understanding how a replisome functions in the process of DNA replication requires methods to dissect the mechanisms of individual proteins and of multiproteins acting in concert. Single-molecule optical-trapping techniques have proved to be a powerful approach, offering the unique ability to observe and manipulate biomolecules at the single-molecule level and providing insights into the mechanisms of molecular motors and their interactions and coordination in a complex. Here, we describe a practical guide to applying these techniques to study the dynamics of individual proteins in the bacteriophage T7 replisome, as well as the coordination among them. We also summarize major findings from these studies, including nucleotide-specific helicase slippage and new lesion bypass pathway in T7 replication.

Molecular events during translocation and proofreading extracted from 200 static structures of DNA polymerase

DNA polymerases in family B are workhorses of DNA replication that carry out the bulk of the job at a high speed with high accuracy. A polymerase in this family relies on a built-in exonuclease for proofreading. It has not been observed at the atomic resolution how the polymerase advances one nucleotide space on the DNA template strand after a correct nucleotide is incorporated, that is, a process known as translocation. It is even more puzzling how translocation is avoided after the primer strand is excised by the exonuclease and returned back to the polymerase active site once an error occurs. The structural events along the bifurcate pathways of translocation and proofreading have been unwittingly captured by hundreds of structures in Protein Data Bank. This study analyzes all available structures of a representative member in family B and reveals the orchestrated event sequence during translocation and proofreading.