Meiotic segregation in Drosophila melanogaster females: molecules, mechanisms, and myths

A cytological F1 RNAi screen for defects in Drosophila melanogaster female meiosis

Genetic screens for recessive alleles induce mutations, make the mutated chromosomes homozygous, and then assay those homozygotes for the phenotype of interest. When screening for genes required for female meiosis, the phenotype of interest has typically been nondisjunction from chromosome segregation errors. As this requires that mutant females be viable and fertile, any mutants that are lethal or sterile when homozygous cannot be recovered by this approach. To overcome these limitations, we have screened the VALIUM22 collection of RNAi constructs that target germline-expressing genes in a vector optimized for germline expression by driving RNAi with GAL4 under control of a germline-specific promoter (nanos or mat-alpha4). This allowed us to test genes that would be lethal if knocked down in all cells, and by examining unfertilized metaphase-arrested mature oocytes, we could identify defects in sterile females. After screening >1,450 lines of the collection for two different defects (chromosome congression and the hypoxic sequestration of Mps1-GFP to ooplasmic filaments), we obtained multiple hits for both phenotypes, identified novel meiotic phenotypes for genes that had been previously characterized in other processes, and identified the first phenotypes to be associated with several previously uncharacterized genes.

A Cytological F1 RNAi Screen for Defects in Drosophila melanogaster Female Meiosis

Genetic screens for recessive alleles induce mutations, make the mutated chromosomes homozygous, and then assay those homozygotes for the phenotype of interest. When screening for genes required for female meiosis, the phenotype of interest has typically been nondisjunction from chromosome segregation errors. As this requires that mutant females be viable and fertile, any mutants that are lethal or sterile when homozygous cannot be recovered by this approach. To overcome these limitations, our lab has screened the VALIUM22 collection produced by the Harvard TRiP Project, which contains RNAi constructs targeting genes known to be expressed in the germline in a vector optimized for germline expression. By driving RNAi with GAL4 under control of a germline-specific promoter (nanos or mat-alpha4), we can test genes that would be lethal if knocked down in all cells, and by examining unfertilized metaphase-arrested mature oocytes, we can identify defects associated with genes whose knockdown results in sterility or causes other errors besides nondisjunction. We screened this collection to identify genes that disrupt either of two phenotypes when knocked down: the ability of meiotic chromosomes to congress to a single mass at the end of prometaphase, and the sequestration of Mps1-GFP to ooplasmic filaments in response to hypoxia. After screening >1450 lines of the collection, we obtained multiple hits for both phenotypes, identified novel meiotic phenotypes for genes that had been previously characterized in other processes, and identified the first phenotypes to be associated with several previously uncharacterized genes.

Meiotic, genomic and evolutionary properties of crossover distribution in Drosophila yakuba

The number and location of crossovers across genomes are highly regulated during meiosis, yet the key components controlling them are fast evolving, hindering our understanding of the mechanistic causes and evolutionary consequences of changes in crossover rates. Drosophila melanogaster has been a model species to study meiosis for more than a century, with an available high-resolution crossover map that is, nonetheless, missing for closely related species, thus preventing evolutionary context. Here, we applied a novel and highly efficient approach to generate whole-genome high-resolution crossover maps in D. yakuba to tackle multiple questions that benefit from being addressed collectively within an appropriate phylogenetic framework, in our case the D. melanogaster species subgroup. The genotyping of more than 1,600 individual meiotic events allowed us to identify several key distinct properties relative to D. melanogaster. We show that D. yakuba, in addition to higher crossover rates than D. melanogaster, has a stronger centromere effect and crossover assurance than any Drosophila species analyzed to date. We also report the presence of an active crossover-associated meiotic drive mechanism for the X chromosome that results in the preferential inclusion in oocytes of chromatids with crossovers. Our evolutionary and genomic analyses suggest that the genome-wide landscape of crossover rates in D. yakuba has been fairly stable and captures a significant signal of the ancestral crossover landscape for the whole D. melanogaster subgroup, even informative for the D. melanogaster lineage. Contemporary crossover rates in D. melanogaster, on the other hand, do not recapitulate ancestral crossovers landscapes. As a result, the temporal stability of crossover landscapes observed in D. yakuba makes this species an ideal system for applying population genetic models of selection and linkage, given that these models assume temporal constancy in linkage effects. Our studies emphasize the importance of generating multiple high-resolution crossover rate maps within a coherent phylogenetic context to broaden our understanding of crossover control during meiosis and to improve studies on the evolutionary consequences of variable crossover rates across genomes and time.

The Interchromosomal Effect: Different Meanings for Different Organisms

The term interchromosomal effect was originally used to describe a change in the distribution of exchange in the presence of an inversion. First characterized in the 1920s by early Drosophila researchers, it has been observed in multiple organisms. Nearly half a century later, the term began to appear in the human genetics literature to describe the hypothesis that parental chromosome differences, such as translocations or inversions, may increase the frequency of meiotic chromosome nondisjunction. Although it remains unclear if chromosome aberrations truly affect the segregation of structurally normal chromosomes in humans, the use of the term interchromosomal effect in this context persists. This article explores the history of the use of the term interchromosomal effect and discusses how chromosomes with structural aberrations are segregated during meiosis.

Female Meiosis: Synapsis, Recombination, and Segregation in Drosophila melanogaster

A century of genetic studies of the meiotic process in Drosophila melanogaster females has been greatly augmented by both modern molecular biology and major advances in cytology. These approaches, and the findings they have allowed, are the subject of this review. Specifically, these efforts have revealed that meiotic pairing in Drosophila females is not an extension of somatic pairing, but rather occurs by a poorly understood process during premeiotic mitoses. This process of meiotic pairing requires the function of several components of the synaptonemal complex (SC). When fully assembled, the SC also plays a critical role in maintaining homolog synapsis and in facilitating the maturation of double-strand breaks (DSBs) into mature crossover (CO) events. Considerable progress has been made in elucidating not only the structure, function, and assembly of the SC, but also the proteins that facilitate the formation and repair of DSBs into both COs and noncrossovers (NCOs). The events that control the decision to mature a DSB as either a CO or an NCO, as well as determining which of the two CO pathways (class I or class II) might be employed, are also being characterized by genetic and genomic approaches. These advances allow a reconsideration of meiotic phenomena such as interference and the centromere effect, which were previously described only by genetic studies. In delineating the mechanisms by which the oocyte controls the number and position of COs, it becomes possible to understand the role of CO position in ensuring the proper orientation of homologs on the first meiotic spindle. Studies of bivalent orientation have occurred in the context of numerous investigations into the assembly, structure, and function of the first meiotic spindle. Additionally, studies have examined the mechanisms ensuring the segregation of chromosomes that have failed to undergo crossing over.

Molecular Evolution at a Meiosis Gene Mediates Species Differences in the Rate and Patterning of Recombination

Crossing over between homologous chromosomes during meiosis repairs programmed DNA double-strand breaks, ensures proper segregation at meiosis I [1], shapes the genomic distribution of nucleotide variability in populations, and enhances the efficacy of natural selection among genetically linked sites [2]. Between closely related Drosophila species, large differences exist in the rate and chromosomal distribution of crossing over. Little, however, is known about the molecular genetic changes or population genetic forces that mediate evolved differences in recombination between species [3, 4]. Here, we show that a meiosis gene with a history of rapid evolution acts as a trans-acting modifier of species differences in crossing over. In transgenic flies, the dicistronic gene, mei-217/mei-218, recapitulates a large part of the species differences in the rate and chromosomal distribution of crossing over. These phenotypic differences appear to result from changes in protein sequence not gene expression. Our population genetics analyses show that the protein-coding sequence of mei-218, but not mei-217, has a history of recurrent positive natural selection. By modulating the intensity of centromeric and telomeric suppression of crossing over, evolution at mei-217/-218 has incidentally shaped gross differences in the chromosomal distribution of nucleotide variability between species. We speculate that recurrent bouts of adaptive evolution at mei-217/-218 might reflect a history of coevolution with selfish genetic elements.

Recombination rate plasticity: revealing mechanisms by design

For over a century, scientists have known that meiotic recombination rates can vary considerably among individuals, and that environmental conditions can modify recombination rates relative to the background. A variety of external and intrinsic factors such as temperature, age, sex and starvation can elicit 'plastic' responses in recombination rate. The influence of recombination rate plasticity on genetic diversity of the next generation has interesting and important implications for how populations evolve. Further, many questions remain regarding the mechanisms and molecular processes that contribute to recombination rate plasticity. Here, we review 100 years of experimental work on recombination rate plasticity conducted in Drosophila melanogaster We categorize this work into four major classes of experimental designs, which we describe via classic studies in D. melanogaster Based on these studies, we highlight molecular mechanisms that are supported by experimental results and relate these findings to studies in other systems. We synthesize lessons learned from this model system into experimental guidelines for using recent advances in genotyping technologies, to study recombination rate plasticity in non-model organisms. Specifically, we recommend (1) using fine-scale genome-wide markers, (2) collecting time-course data, (3) including crossover distribution measurements, and (4) using mixed effects models to analyse results. To illustrate this approach, we present an application adhering to these guidelines from empirical work we conducted in Drosophila pseudoobscuraThis article is part of the themed issue 'Evolutionary causes and consequences of recombination rate variation in sexual organisms'.

The Drosophila zinc finger protein trade embargo is required for double strand break formation in meiosis

Homologous recombination in meiosis is initiated by the programmed induction of double strand breaks (DSBs). Although the Drosophila Spo11 ortholog Mei-W68 is required for the induction of DSBs during meiotic prophase, only one other protein (Mei-P22) has been shown to be required for Mei-W68 to exert this function. We show here that the chromatin-associated protein Trade Embargo (Trem), a C2H2 zinc finger protein, is required to localize Mei-P22 to discrete foci on meiotic chromosomes, and thus to promote the formation of DSBs, making Trem the earliest known function in the process of DSB formation in Drosophila oocytes. We speculate that Trem may act by either directing the binding of Mei-P22 to preferred sites of DSB formation or by altering chromatin structure in a manner that allows Mei-P22 to form foci.

Evidence based on studies of the mus309 mutant, deficient in DNA double-strand break repair, that meiotic crossing over in Drosophila melanogaster is a two-phase process

The mus309 gene in Drosophila melanogaster encodes a RecQ helicase which is involved in DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair and specifically in the choice between the different pathways of the repair. In a brood pattern analysis of mus309 and wild type females which either had or had not experienced a temperature shock, different parameters of meiotic crossing over including map distances and crossover interference in the X chromosome were measured. The results suggest that, like in other eukaryotes studied, the control of meiotic crossover formation also in D. melanogaster is a two-phase process. The first phase seems to be temperature shock sensitive, independent of the mus309 gene and coincidental with the premeiotic DNA synthesis, thus most likely representing the formation of DSBs. The second phase seems to be temperature shock tolerant, dependent on the mus309 gene, occurring during the meiotic prophase and most likely representing the choice made by the oocyte between the different pathways of the DSB repair. A hypothesis of the localization of chiasmata is also presented, combining the mechanisms of interference and the so-called centromere effect, and based on the balance between the SDSA and DSBR pathways of DSB repair.

Prelude to a division

Accurate segregation of chromosomes during meiosis requires physical links between homologs. These links are usually established through chromosome pairing, synapsis, and recombination, which occur during meiotic prophase. How chromosomes pair with their homologous partners is one of the outstanding mysteries of meiosis. Surprisingly, experimental evidence indicates that different organisms have found more than one way to accomplish this feat. Whereas some species depend on recombination machinery to achieve homologous pairing, others are able to pair and synapse their homologs in the absence of recombination. To ensure specific pairing between homologous chromosomes, both recombination-dependent and recombination-independent mechanisms must strike the proper balance between forces that promote chromosome interactions and activities that temper the promiscuity of those interactions. The initiation of synapsis is likely to be a tightly regulated step in a process that must be mechanically coupled to homolog pairing.

Fluorescent Arabidopsis tetrads: a visual assay for quickly developing large crossover and crossover interference data sets

In most organisms, one crossover (CO) event inhibits the chances of another nearby event. The term used to describe this phenomenon is 'CO interference'. Here, we describe a protocol for quickly generating large data sets that are amenable to CO interference analysis in the flowering plant, Arabidopsis thaliana. We employ a visual assay that utilizes transgenic marker constructs encoding pollen-expressed fluorescent proteins of three colors in the quartet mutant background. In this genetic background, male meiotic products--the pollen grains--remain physically attached thereby facilitating tetrad analysis. We have developed a library of mapped marker insertions that, when crossed together, create adjacent intervals that can be rapidly and simultaneously screened for COs. This assay system is capable of detecting and differentiating single COs as well as two-, three- and four-strand double COs. We also describe how to analyze the data that are produced by this method. To generate and score a double interval in a wild-type and mutant background using this protocol will take 22-27 weeks.

Meiotic transmission of Drosophila pseudoobscura chromosomal arrangements

Drosophila pseudoobscura harbors a rich gene arrangement polymorphism on the third chromosome generated by a series of overlapping paracentric inversions. The arrangements suppress recombination in heterokaryotypic individuals, which allows for the selective maintenance of coadapted gene complexes. Previous mapping experiments used to determine the degree to which recombination is suppressed in gene arrangement heterozygotes produced non-recombinant progeny in non-Mendelian ratios. The deviations from Mendelian expectations could be the result of viability differences between wild and mutant chromosomes, meiotic drive because of achiasmate pairing of homologues in heterokaryotypic females during meiosis, or a combination of both mechanisms. The possibility that the frequencies of the chromosomal arrangements in natural populations are affected by mechanisms other than adaptive selection led us to consider these hypotheses. We performed reciprocal crosses involving both heterozygous males and females to determine if the frequency of the non-recombinant progeny deviates significantly from Mendelian expectations and if the frequencies deviate between reciprocal crosses. We failed to observe non-Mendelian ratios in multiple crosses, and the frequency of the non-recombinant classes differed in only one of five pairs of reciprocal crosses despite sufficient power to detect these differences in all crosses. Our results indicate that deviations from Mendelian expectations in recombination experiments involving the D. pseudoobscura inversion system are most likely due to fitness differences of gene arrangement karyotypes in different environments.

Similarity of the domain structure of proteins as a basis for the conservation of meiosis

Meiosis is conserved in all eucaryotic kingdoms, and homologous rows of variability are revealed for the cytological traits of meiosis. To find the nature of these phenomenons, we reviewed the most-studied meiosis-specific proteins and studied them with the methods of bioinformatics. We found that synaptonemal complex proteins have no homology of amino-acid sequence, but are similar in the domain organization and three-dimensional (3D) structure of functionally important domains in budding yeast, nematode, Drosophila, Arabidopsis, and human. Recombination proteins of Rad51/Dmc1 family are conserved to the extent which permits them to make filamentous single-strand deoxyribonucleic acid (ssDNA)-protein intermediates of meiotic recombination. The same structural principles are valid for conservation of the ultrastructure of kinetochores, cell gap contacts, and nuclear pore complexes, such as in the cases when ultrastructure 3D parameters are important for the function. We suggest that self-assembly of protein molecules plays a significant role in building-up of all biological structures mentioned.

An analysis of univalent segregation in meiotic mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana: a possible role for synaptonemal complex

During first meiotic prophase, homologous chromosomes are normally kept together by both crossovers and synaptonemal complexes (SC). In most eukaryotes, the SC disassembles at diplotene, leaving chromosomes joined by chiasmata. The correct co-orientation of bivalents at metaphase I and the reductional segregation at anaphase I are facilitated by chiasmata and sister-chromatid cohesion. In the absence of meiotic reciprocal recombination, homologs are expected to segregate randomly at anaphase I. Here, we have analyzed the segregation of homologous chromosomes at anaphase I in four meiotic mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana, spo11-1-3, dsy1, mpa1, and asy1, which show a high frequency of univalents at diplotene. The segregation pattern of chromosomes 2, 4, and 5 was different in each mutant. Homologous univalents segregated randomly in spo11-1-3, whereas they did not in dsy1 and mpa1. An intermediate situation was observed in asy1. Also, we have found a parallelism between this behavior and the synaptic pattern displayed by each mutant. Thus, whereas spo11-1-3 and asy1 showed low amounts of SC stretches, dsy1 and mpa1 showed full synapsis. These findings suggest that in Arabidopsis there is a system, depending on the SC formation, that would facilitate regular disjunction of homologous univalents to opposite poles at anaphase I.

Genetic evidence that nonhomologous disjunction and meiotic drive are properties of wild-type Drosophila melanogaster male meiosis

We have followed sex and second chromosome disjunction, and the effects of these chromosomes on sperm function, in four genotypes: wild-type males, males deficient for the Y-linked crystal locus, males with an X chromosome heterochromatic deficiency that deletes all X-Y pairing sites, and males with both deficiencies. Both mutant situations provoke chromosome misbehavior, but the disjunctional defects are quite different. Deficiency of the X heterochromatin, consonant with the lack of pairing sites, mostly disrupts X-Y disjunction with a decidedly second-level effect on major autosome behavior. Deleting crystal, consonant with the cytological picture of postpairing chromatin-condensation problems, disrupts sex and autosome disjunction equally. Even when the mutant-induced nondisjunction has very different mechanics, however, and even more importantly, even in the wild type, there is strong, and similar, meiotic drive. The presence of meiotic drive when disjunction is disrupted by distinctly different mechanisms supports the notion that drive is a normal cellular response to meiotic problems rather than a direct effect of particular mutants. Most surprisingly, in both wild-type and crystal-deficient males the Y chromosome moves to the opposite pole from a pair of nondisjoined second chromosomes nearly 100% of the time. This nonhomologous interaction is, however, absent when the X heterochromatin is deleted. The nonhomologous disjunction of the sex and second chromosomes may be the genetic consequence of the chromosomal compartmentalization seen by deconvolution microscopy, and the absence of Y-2 disjunction when the X heterochromatin is deleted suggests that XY pairing itself, or a previously unrecognized heterochromatic function, is prerequisite to this macrostructural organization of the chromosomes.

The meiotic defects of mutants in the Drosophila mps1 gene reveal a critical role of Mps1 in the segregation of achiasmate homologs

The conserved kinase Mps1 is necessary for the proper functioning of the mitotic and meiotic spindle checkpoints (MSCs), which monitor the integrity of the spindle apparatus and prevent cells from progressing into anaphase until chromosomes are properly aligned on the metaphase plate. In Drosophila melanogaster, a null allele of the gene encoding Mps1 was recently shown to be required for the proper functioning of the MSC, but it did not appear to exhibit a defect in female meiosis. We demonstrate here that the meiotic mutant ald1 is a hypomorphic allele of the mps1 gene. Both ald1 and a P-insertion allele of mps1 exhibit defects in female meiotic chromosome segregation. The observed segregational defects are substantially more severe for pairs of achiasmate homologs, which are normally segregated by the achiasmate (or distributive) segregation system, than they are for chiasmate bivalents. Furthermore, cytological analysis of ald1 mutant oocytes reveals both a failure in the coorientation of achiasmate homologs at metaphase I and a defect in the maintenance of the chiasmate homolog associations that are normally observed at metaphase I. We conclude that Mps1 plays an important role in Drosophila female meiosis by regulating processes that are especially critical for ensuring the proper segregation of nonexchange chromosomes.

Persistence and loss of meiotic recombination hotspots

The contradiction between the long-term persistence of the chromosomal hotspots that initiate meiotic recombination and the self-destructive mechanism by which they act strongly suggests that our understanding of recombination is incomplete. This "hotspot paradox" has been reinforced by the finding that biased gene conversion also removes active hotspots from human sperm. To investigate the requirements for hotspot persistence, we developed a detailed computer simulation model of their activity and its evolutionary consequences. With this model, unopposed hotspot activity could drive strong hotspots from 50% representation to extinction within 70 generations. Although the crossing over that hotspots cause can increase population fitness, this benefit was always too small to slow the loss of hotspots. Hotspots could not be maintained by plausible rates of de novo mutation, nor by crossover interference, which alters the frequency and/or spacing of crossovers. Competition among hotspots for activity-limiting factors also did not prevent their extinction, although the rate of hotspot loss was slowed. Key factors were the probability that the initiating hotspot allele is destroyed and the nonmeiotic contributions hotspots make to fitness. Experimental investigation of these deserves high priority, because until the paradox is resolved all components of the mechanism are open to doubt.

Nucleotide variation and recombination along the fourth chromosome in Drosophila simulans

The fourth chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster and its sister species are believed to be nonrecombining and have been a model system for testing predictions of the effects of selection on linked, neutral variation. We recently examined nucleotide variation along the chromosome of D. melanogaster and revealed that a low average level of recombination could be associated with considerably high levels of nucleotide variation. In this report, we further investigate the variation along the fourth chromosome of D. simulans. We sequenced 12 gene regions evenly distributed along the fourth chromosome for a worldwide collection of 11 isofemale lines and 5 gene regions in a local population of 10 isofemale lines from South America. In contrast to predictions for regions of very low recombination, these data reveal that the variation levels in many gene regions, including an intron region of the ci gene, vary considerably along the fourth chromosome. Nucleotide diversity ranged from 0.0010 to 0.0074 in 9 gene regions interspersed with several regions of greatly reduced variation. Tests of recombination indicate that the recombination level is not as low as previously thought, likely an order of magnitude higher than that in D. melanogaster. Finally, estimates of the recombination parameters are shown to support a crossover-plus-conversion model.

Dynamics of homologous chromosome pairing during meiotic prophase in fission yeast

Pairing of homologous chromosomes is important for homologous recombination and correct chromosome segregation during meiosis. It has been proposed that telomere clustering, nuclear oscillation, and recombination during meiotic prophase facilitate homologous chromosome pairing in fission yeast. Here we examined the contributions of these chromosomal events to homologous chromosome pairing, by directly observing the dynamics of chromosomal loci in living cells of fission yeast. Homologous loci exhibited a dynamic process of association and dissociation during the time course of meiotic prophase. Lack of nuclear oscillation reduced association frequency for both centromeric and arm regions of the chromosome. Lack of telomere clustering or recombination reduced association frequency at arm regions, but not significantly at centromeric regions. Our results indicate that homologous chromosomes are spatially aligned by oscillation of telomere-bundled chromosomes and physically linked by recombination at chromosome arm regions; this recombination is not required for association of homologous centromeres.

Nucleotide Variation and Recombination Along the Fourth Chromosome inDrosophila simulans

The fourth chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster and its sister species are believed to be nonrecombining and have been a model system for testing predictions of the effects of selection on linked, neutral variation. We recently examined nucleotide variation along the chromosome of D. melanogaster and revealed that a low average level of recombination could be associated with considerably high levels of nucleotide variation. In this report, we further investigate the variation along the fourth chromosome of D. simulans. We sequenced 12 gene regions evenly distributed along the fourth chromosome for a worldwide collection of 11 isofemale lines and 5 gene regions in a local population of 10 isofemale lines from South America. In contrast to predictions for regions of very low recombination, these data reveal that the variation levels in many gene regions, including an intron region of the ci gene, vary considerably along the fourth chromosome. Nucleotide diversity ranged from 0.0010 to 0.0074 in 9 gene regions interspersed with several regions of greatly reduced variation. Tests of recombination indicate that the recombination level is not as low as previously thought, likely an order of magnitude higher than that in D. melanogaster. Finally, estimates of the recombination parameters are shown to support a crossover-plus-conversion model.

Linkage Disequilibrium Patterns Across a Recombination Gradient in African Drosophila melanogaster

Previous multilocus surveys of nucleotide polymorphism have documented a genome-wide excess of intralocus linkage disequilibrium (LD) in Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans relative to expectations based on estimated mutation and recombination rates and observed levels of diversity. These studies examined patterns of variation from predominantly non-African populations that are thought to have recently expanded their ranges from central Africa. Here, we analyze polymorphism data from a Zimbabwean population of D. melanogaster, which is likely to be closer to the standard population model assumptions of a large population with constant size. Unlike previous studies, we find that levels of LD are roughly compatible with expectations based on estimated rates of crossing over. Further, a detailed examination of genes in different recombination environments suggests that markers near the telomere of the X chromosome show considerably less linkage disequilibrium than predicted by rates of crossing over, suggesting appreciable levels of exchange due to gene conversion. Assuming that these populations are near mutation-drift equilibrium, our results are most consistent with a model that posits heterogeneity in levels of exchange due to gene conversion across the X chromosome, with gene conversion being a minor determinant of LD levels in regions of high crossing over. Alternatively, if levels of exchange due to gene conversion are not negligible in regions of high crossing over, our results suggest a marked departure from mutation-drift equilibrium (i.e., toward an excess of LD) in this Zimbabwean population. Our results also have implications for the dynamics of weakly selected mutations in regions of reduced crossing over.

Meiotic recombination and chromosome segregation in Drosophila females

In this review, we describe the pathway for generating meiotic crossovers in Drosophila melanogaster females and how these events ensure the segregation of homologous chromosomes. As appears to be common to meiosis in most organisms, recombination is initiated with a double-strand break (DSB). The interesting differences between organisms appear to be associated with what chromosomal events are required for DSBs to form. In Drosophila females, the synaptonemal complex is required for most DSB formation. The repair of these breaks requires several DSB repair genes, some of which are meiosis-specific, and defects at this stage can have effects downstream on oocyte development. This has been suggested to result from a checkpoint-like signaling between the oocyte nucleus and gene products regulating oogenesis. Crossovers result from genetically controlled modifications to the DSB repair pathway. Finally, segregation of chromosomes joined by a chiasma requires a bipolar spindle. At least two kinesin motor proteins are required for the assembly of this bipolar spindle, and while the meiotic spindle lacks traditional centrosomes, some centrosome components are found at the spindle poles.

Genetic control of germline sexual dimorphism in Drosophila

Females produce eggs and males produce sperm. Work in Drosophila is helping to elucidate how this sex-specific germline differentiation is genetically encoded. While important details remain somewhat controversial, it is clear that signals generated by somatic cells, probably in the embryonic gonads, are required as extrinsic factors for germline sex determination. It is equally clear that the sex chromosome karyotype of the germ cell is an intrinsic factor for germline sex determination. There is also extensive somatic signaling required for differentiation of germline cells in the adult gonads. Mismatched germline and somatic line sexual identities place germ cells in an inappropriate signaling milieu, which results in either failed maintenance of germline stems cells when female germ cells are in a male soma or overproliferation of germline cells when male germ cells are in a female soma. The well-studied somatic sex determination genes including transformer, transformer-2, and doublesex are clearly involved in the nonautonomous signaling from somatic cells, while the autonomous functions of genes including ovo, ovarian tumor, and Sex-lethal are involved in the germline. The integration of these two pathways is not yet clear.

Chromosomal rearrangements and evolution of recombination: comparison of chiasma distribution patterns in standard and robertsonian populations of the house mouse

The effects of chromosomal rearrangements on recombination rates were tested by the analysis of chiasma distribution patterns in wild house mice. Males and females of two chromosomal races from Tunisia differing by nine pairs of Robertsonian (Rb) fusions (standard all-acrocentric, 2N = 40 and 2N = 22) were studied. A significant decrease in chiasma number (CN) was observed in Rb mice compared to standard ones for both sexes. The difference in CN was due to a reduction in the number of proximal chiasmata and was associated with an overall more distal redistribution. These features were related to distance of chiasmata to the centromere, suggesting that the centromere effect was more pronounced in Rb fusions than in acrocentric chromosomes. These modifications were interpreted in terms of structural meiotic constraints, although genic factors were likely involved in patterning the observed differences between sexes within races. Thus, the change in chromosomal structure in Rb mice was associated with a generalized decrease in recombination due to a reduction in diploid number, a lower CN, and a decrease in the efficiency of recombination. The effects of such modifications on patterns of genic diversity are discussed in the light of models of evolution of recombination.

Crossover distribution and high interference for both the X chromosome and an autosome during oogenesis and spermatogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans

Regulation of both the number and the location of crossovers during meiosis is important for normal chromosome segregation. We used sequence-tagged site polymorphisms to examine the distribution of all crossovers on the X chromosome during oogenesis and on one autosome during both oogenesis and spermatogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans. The X chromosome has essentially one crossover during oogenesis, with only three possible double crossover exceptions among 220 recombinant X chromosomes. All three had one of the two crossovers in the same chromosomal interval, suggesting that crossovers in that interval do not cause interference. No other interval was associated with double crossovers. Very high interference was also found on an autosome during oogenesis, implying that each chromosome has only one crossover during oogenesis. During spermatogenesis, recombination on this autosome was reduced by approximately 30% compared to oogenesis, but the relative distribution of the residual crossovers was only slightly different. In contrast to previous results with other autosomes, no double crossover chromosomes were observed. Despite an increased frequency of nonrecombinant chromosomes, segregation of a nonrecombinant autosome during spermatogenesis appears to occur normally. This indicates that an achiasmate segregation system helps to ensure faithful disjunction of autosomes during spermatogenesis.

Centrosomal TACCtics

Although the centrosome was first described over 100 years ago, we still know relatively little of the molecular mechanisms responsible for its functions. Recently, members of a novel family of centrosomal proteins have been identified in a wide variety of organisms. The transforming acidic coiled-coil-containing (TACC) proteins all appear to play important roles in cell division and cellular organisation in both embryonic and somatic systems. These closely related molecules have been implicated in microtubule stabilisation, acentrosomal spindle assembly, translational regulation, haematopoietic development and cancer progression. In this review, I summarise what we already know of this protein family and will use the TACC proteins to illustrate the many facets that centrosomes have developed during the course of evolution.

Genetic Control of Mammalian Meiotic Recombination. I. Variation in Exchange Frequencies Among Males From Inbred Mouse Strains

Genetic background effects on the frequency of meiotic recombination have long been suspected in mice but never demonstrated in a systematic manner, especially in inbred strains. We used a recently described immunostaining technique to assess meiotic exchange patterns in male mice. We found that among four different inbred strains—CAST/Ei, A/J, C57BL/6, and SPRET/Ei—the mean number of meiotic exchanges per cell and, thus, the recombination rates in these genetic backgrounds were significantly different. These frequencies ranged from a low of 21.5 exchanges in CAST/Ei to a high of 24.9 in SPRET/Ei. We also found that, as expected, these crossover events were nonrandomly distributed and displayed positive interference. However, we found no evidence for significant differences in the patterns of crossover positioning between strains with different exchange frequencies. From our observations of >10,000 autosomal synaptonemal complexes, we conclude that achiasmate bivalents arise in the male mouse at a frequency of 0.1%. Thus, special mechanisms that segregate achiasmate chromosomes are unlikely to be an important component of mammalian male meiosis.

A genetic map of Gibberella zeae (Fusarium graminearum)

We constructed a genetic linkage map of Gibberella zeae (Fusarium graminearum) by crossing complementary nitrate-nonutilizing (nit) mutants of G. zeae strains R-5470 (from Japan) and Z-3639 (from Kansas). We selected 99 nitrate-utilizing (recombinant) progeny and analyzed them for amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). We used 34 pairs of two-base selective AFLP primers and identified 1048 polymorphic markers that mapped to 468 unique loci on nine linkage groups. The total map length is approximately 1300 cM with an average interval of 2.8 map units between loci. Three of the nine linkage groups contain regions in which there are high levels of segregation distortion. Selection for the nitrate-utilizing recombinant progeny can explain two of the three skewed regions. Two linkage groups have recombination patterns that are consistent with the presence of intercalary inversions. Loci governing trichothecene toxin amount and type (deoxynivalenol or nivalenol) map on linkage groups IV and I, respectively. The locus governing the type of trichothecene produced (nivalenol or deoxynivalenol) cosegregated with the TRI5 gene (which encodes trichodiene synthase) and probably maps in the trichothecene gene cluster. This linkage map will be useful in population genetic studies, in map-based cloning, for QTL (quantitative trait loci) analysis, for ordering genomic libraries, and for genomic comparisons of related species.

Mechanism and control of meiotic recombination initiation

Homologous recombination is essential during meiosis in most sexually reproducing organisms. In budding yeast, and most likely in other organisms as well, meiotic recombination proceeds via the formation and repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). These breaks appear to be formed by the Spo11 protein, with assistance from a large number of other gene products, by a topoisomerase-like transesterase mechanism. Recent studies in fission yeast, multicellular fungi, flies, worms, plants, and mammals indicate that the role of Spo11 in meiotic recombination initiation is highly conserved. This chapter reviews the properties of Spo11 and the other gene products required for meiotic DSB formation in a number of organisms and discusses ways in which recombination initiation is coordinated with other events occurring in the meiotic cell.

Patterns of genetic variation at a chromosome 4 locus of Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans

DNA sequence surveys of Drosophila melanogaster populations show a strong positive correlation between the recombination rate experienced by a locus and its level of nucleotide polymorphism. In particular, surveys of the fourth chromosome gene ci(D) show greatly reduced levels of nucleotide variation; this observation was originally interpreted in terms of selective sweeps occurring on the nonrecombining fourth chromosome. Subsequent theoretical work has, however, uncovered several other selective processes that can reduce variation. In this study, we revisit the Drosophila fourth chromosome, investigating variation in 5-6 kb of the gene ankyrin in D. melanogaster and D. simulans. Silent nucleotide site diversity is approximately 5 x 10(-4) for both species, consistent with the previous observations of low variation at ci(D). Given the observed frequency spectra at ankyrin, coalescent simulations indicate that reduced diversity in the region is unlikely to be due to a selective sweep alone. We find evidence for recombinational exchange at this locus, and both species appear to be fixed for an insertion of the transposable element HB in an intron of ankyrin.

The isolation of a mutation causing abnormal cytokinesis in male and split chromocenter in female meiosis in Drosophila melanogaster

The genetic screen for the meiotic mutations showing chromosome non-disjunction in mosaic clones of female germ line generated by FLP-FRT mediated mitotic recombination was performed. The sterile meiotic mutation ff16 (69D1-70A2) was found among the mutants obtained. In the male germ line the mutation showed lack of meiosis 1 cytokinesis and other meiotic abnormalities. The sterility of the mutant is due to the lack of the sperm motility. In female germ line the morphological defects-decreased number of ovarioles and nurse cells in the egg chambers is visible. At the cell level the mutation showed karyosome fragmentation constituting to the gene participation in chromocenter formation/maintance. The cases of the spindle fragmentation revealed the processes acting in female meiotic metaphase. Premeiotic and mitotic defects of the mutation have also been detected.

Genetic and molecular analysis of wings apart-like (wapl), a gene controlling heterochromatin organization in Drosophila melanogaster

Mutations in the X-linked gene wings apart-like (wapl) result in late larval lethality associated with an unusual chromosome morphology. In brain cell metaphases of wapl mutants, sister chromatids of all chromosomes are aligned parallel to each other instead of assuming the typical morphology observed in wild type. This effect is due to a loosening of the adhesion between sister chromatids in the heterochromatic regions of the chromosomes. Despite this aberrant chromosome morphology, mutant brains exhibit normal mitotic parameters, suggesting that heterochromatin cohesion is not essential for proper centromere function. On the basis of these observations, we examined the role of wapl in meiotic chromosome segregation in females. wapl exhibits a clear dominant effect on achiasmate segregation, giving further support to the hypothesis that proximal heterochromatin is involved in chromosome pairing during female meiosis. We also examined whether wapl modulates position-effect variegation (PEV). Our analyses showed that wapl is a dominant suppressor of both white and Stubble variegation, while it is a weak enhancer of brown variegation. wapl maps to region 2D of the X chromosome between Pgd and pn. We identified the wapl gene within a previously conducted chromosomal walk in this region. The wapl transcriptional unit gives rise to two alternatively spliced transcripts 6.5- and 5-kb long. The protein encoded by the larger of these transcripts appears to be conserved among higher eukaryotes and contains a tract of acidic amino acids reminiscent of many chromatin-associated proteins, including two [HP1 and SU(VAR)3-7] encoded by other genes that act as suppressors of PEV.

Meiotic chromosomes: integrating structure and function

Meiotic chromosomes have been studied for many years, in part because of the fundamental life processes they represent, but also because meiosis involves the formation of homolog pairs, a feature which greatly facilitates the study of chromosome behavior. The complex events involved in homolog juxtaposition necessitate prolongation of prophase, thus permitting resolution of events that are temporally compressed in the mitotic cycle. Furthermore, once homologs are paired, the chromosomes are connected by a specific structure: the synaptonemal complex. Finally, interaction of homologs includes recombination at the DNA level, which is intimately linked to structural features of the chromosomes. In consequence, recombination-related events report on diverse aspects of chromosome morphogenesis, notably relationships between sisters, development of axial structure, and variations in chromatin status. The current article reviews recent information on these topics in an historical context. This juxtaposition has suggested new relationships between structure and function. Additional issues were addressed in a previous chapter (551).

Classic Weinstein: tetrad analysis, genetic variation and achiasmate segregation in Drosophila and humans

A maximum-likelihood method for the estimation of tetrad frequencies from single-spore data is presented. The multilocus exchange with interference and viability (MEIV) model incorporates a clearly defined model of exchange, interference, and viability whose parameters define a multinomial distribution for single-spore data. Maximum-likelihood analysis of the MEIV model (MEIVLA) allows point estimation of tetrad frequencies and determination of confidence intervals. We employ MEIVLA to determine tetrad frequencies among 15 X chromosomes sampled at random from Drosophila melanogaster natural populations in Africa and North America. Significant variation in the frequency of nonexchange, or E(0) tetrads, is observed within both natural populations. Because most nondisjunction arises from E(0) tetrads, this observation is quite unexpected given both the prevalence and the deleterious consequences of nondisjunction in D. melanogaster. Use of MEIVLA is also demonstrated by reanalyzing a recently published human chromosome 21 dataset. Analysis of simulated datasets demonstrates that MEIVLA is superior to previous methods of tetrad frequency estimation and is particularly well suited to analyze samples where the E(0) tetrad frequency is low and sample sizes are small, conditions likely to be met in most samples from human populations. We discuss the implications of our analysis for determining whether an achiasmate system exists in humans to ensure the proper segregation of E(0) tetrads.

Molecular cloning and tissue-specific expression of the mutator2 gene (mu2) in Drosophila melanogaster

We present here the molecular cloning and characterization of the mutator2 (mu2) gene of Drosophila melanogaster together with further genetic analyses of its mutant phenotype. mu2 functions in oogenesis during meiotic recombination, during repair of radiation damage in mature oocytes, and in proliferating somatic cells, where mu2 mutations cause an increase in somatic recombination. Our data show that mu2 represents a novel component in the processing of double strand breaks (DSBs) in female meiosis. mu2 does not code for a DNA repair enzyme because mu2 mutants are not hypersensitive to DSB-inducing agents. We have mapped and cloned the mu2 gene and rescued the mu2 phenotype by germ-line transformation with genomic DNA fragments containing the mu2 gene. Sequencing its cDNA demonstrates that mu2 encodes a novel 139-kD protein, which is highly basic in the carboxy half and carries three nuclear localization signals and a helix-loop-helix domain. Consistent with the sex-specific mutant phenotype, the gene is expressed in ovaries but not in testes. During oogenesis its RNA is rapidly transported from the nurse cells into the oocyte where it accumulates specifically at the anterior margin. Expression is also prominent in diploid proliferating cells of larval somatic tissues. Our genetic and molecular data are consistent with the model that mu2 encodes a structural component of the oocyte nucleus. The MU2 protein may be involved in controlling chromatin structure and thus may influence the processing of DNA DSBs.

Chromosomal influence on meiotic spindle assembly: abnormal meiosis I in female Mlh1 mutant mice

In mouse oocytes, the first meiotic spindle is formed through the action of multiple microtubule organizing centers rather than a pair of centrosomes. Although the chromosomes are thought to play a major role in organizing the meiotic spindle, it remains unclear how a stable bipolar spindle is established. We have studied the formation of the first meiotic spindle in murine oocytes from mice homozygous for a targeted disruption of the DNA mismatch repair gene, Mlh1. In the absence of the MLH1 protein meiotic recombination is dramatically reduced and, as a result, the vast majority of chromosomes are present as unpaired univalents at the first meiotic division. The orientation of these univalent chromosomes at prometaphase suggests that they are unable to establish stable bipolar spindle attachments, presumably due to the inability to differentiate functional kinetochore domains on individual sister chromatids. In the presence of this aberrant chromosome behavior a stable first meiotic spindle is not formed, the spindle poles continue to elongate, and the vast majority of cells never initiate anaphase. These results suggest that, in female meiotic systems in which spindle formation is based on the action of multiple microtubule organizing centers, the chromosomes not only promote microtubule polymerization and organization but their attachment to opposite spindle poles acts to stabilize the forming spindle poles.

Identification of novel Drosophila meiotic genes recovered in a P-element screen

The segregation of homologous chromosomes from one another is the essence of meiosis. In many organisms, accurate segregation is ensured by the formation of chiasmata resulting from crossing over. Drosophila melanogaster females use this type of recombination-based system, but they also have mechanisms for segregating achiasmate chromosomes with high fidelity. We describe a P-element mutagenesis and screen in a sensitized genetic background to detect mutations that impair meiotic chromosome pairing, recombination, or segregation. Our screen identified two new recombination-deficient mutations: mei-P22, which fully eliminates meiotic recombination, and mei-P26, which decreases meiotic exchange by 70% in a polar fashion. We also recovered an unusual allele of the ncd gene, whose wild-type product is required for proper structure and function of the meiotic spindle. However, the screen yielded primarily mutants specifically defective in the segregation of achiasmate chromosomes. Although most of these are alleles of previously undescribed genes, five were in the known genes alphaTubulin67C, CycE, push, and Trl. The five mutations in known genes produce novel phenotypes for those genes.

Dissection of cell division processes in the one cell stage Caenorhabditis elegans embryo by mutational analysis

To identify novel components required for cell division processes in complex eukaryotes, we have undertaken an extensive mutational analysis in the one cell stage Caenorhabditis elegans embryo. The large size and optical properties of this cell permit observation of cell division processes with great detail in live specimens by simple differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy. We have screened an extensive collection of maternal-effect embryonic lethal mutations on chromosome III with time-lapse DIC video microscopy. Using this assay, we have identified 48 mutations in 34 loci which are required for specific cell division processes in the one cell stage embryo. We show that mutations fall into distinct phenotypic classes which correspond, among others, to the processes of pronuclear migration, rotation of centrosomes and associated pronuclei, spindle assembly, chromosome segregation, anaphase spindle positioning, and cytokinesis. We have further analyzed pronuclear migration mutants by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy using antibodies against tubulin and ZYG-9, a centrosomal marker. This analysis revealed that two pronuclear migration loci are required for generating normal microtubule arrays and four for centrosome separation. All 34 loci have been mapped by deficiencies to distinct regions of chromosome III, thus paving the way for their rapid molecular characterization. Our work contributes to establishing the one cell stage C. elegans embryo as a powerful metazoan model system for dissecting cell division processes.

An experimental test for lineage-specific position effects on alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh) genes in Drosophila

Independent transgene insertions differ in expression based on their location in the genome; these position effects are of interest because they reflect the influence of genome organization on gene regulation. Position effects also represent potentially insurmountable obstacles to the rigorous functional comparison of homologous genes from different species because (i) quantitative variation in expression of each gene across genomic positions (generalized position effects, or GPEs) may overwhelm differences between the genes of interest, or (ii) divergent genes may be differentially sensitive to position effects, reflecting unique interactions between each gene and its genomic milieu (lineage-specific position effects, or LSPEs). We have investigated both types of position-effect variation by applying our method of transgene coplacement, which allows comparisons of transgenes in the same position in the genome of Drosophila melanogaster. Here we report an experimental test for LSPE in Drosophila. The alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh) genes of D. melanogaster and Drosophila affinidisjuncta differ in both tissue distribution and amounts of ADH activity. Despite this striking regulatory divergence, we found a very high correlation in overall ADH activity between the genes of the two species when placed in the same genomic position as assayed in otherwise Adh-null adults and larvae. These results argue against the influence of LSPE for these sequences, although the effects of GPE are significant. Our new findings validate the coplacement approach and show that it greatly magnifies the power to detect differences in expression between transgenes. Transgene coplacement thus dramatically extends the range of functional and evolutionary questions that can be addressed by transgenic technology.

Paternal effects in Drosophila: implications for mechanisms of early development

The study of paternal effects on development provides a means to identify sperm-supplied products required for fertilization and the initiation of embryogenesis. This review describes paternal effects on animal development and discusses their implications for the role of the sperm in egg activation, centrosome activity, and biparental inheritance in different animal species. Paternal effects observed in Caenorhabditis elegans and in mammals are briefly reviewed. Emphasis is placed on paternal effects in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetic and cytologic evidence for paternal imprinting on chromosome behavior and gene expression in Drosophila are summarized. These effects are compared to chromosome imprinting that leads to paternal chromosome loss in sciarid and coccid insects and mammalian gametic imprinting that results in differential expression of paternal and maternal loci. The phenotypes caused by several early-acting maternal effect mutations identify specific maternal factors that affect the behavior of paternal components during fertilization and the early embryonic mitotic divisions. In addition, maternal effect defects suggest that two types of regulatory mechanisms coordinate parental components and synchronize their progression through mitosis. Some activities are coordinated by independent responses of parental components to shared regulatory factors, while others require communication between paternal and maternal components. Analyses of the paternal effects mutations sneaky, K81, paternal loss, and Horka have identified paternal products that play a role in mediating the initial response of the sperm to the egg cytoplasm, participation of the male pronucleus in the first mitosis, and stable inheritance of the paternal chromosomes in the early embryo.

The hotspot conversion paradox and the evolution of meiotic recombination

Studies of meiotic recombination have revealed an evolutionary paradox. Molecular and genetic analysis has shown that crossing over initiates at specific sites called hotspots, by a recombinational-repair mechanism in which the initiating hotspot is replaced by a copy of its homolog. We have used computer simulations of large populations to show that this mechanism causes active hotspot alleles to be rapidly replaced by inactive alleles, which arise by rare mutation and increase by recombination-associated conversion. Additional simulations solidified the paradox by showing that the known benefits of recombination appear inadequate to maintain its mechanism. Neither the benefits of accurate segregation nor those of recombining flanking genes were sufficient to preserve active alleles in the face of conversion. A partial resolution to this paradox was obtained by introducing into the model an additional, nonmeiotic function for the sites that initiate recombination, consistent with the observed association of hotspots with functional sites in chromatin. Provided selection for this function was sufficiently strong, active hotspots were able to persist in spite of frequent conversion to inactive alleles. However, this explanation is unsatisfactory for two reasons. First, it is unlikely to apply to obligately sexual species, because observed crossover frequencies imply maintenance of many hotspots per genome, and the viability selection needed to preserve these would drive the species to extinction. Second, it fails to explain why such a genetically costly mechanism of recombination has been maintained over evolutionary time. Thus the paradox persists and is likely to be resolved only by significant changes to the commonly accepted mechanism of crossing over.

Tam1, a telomere-associated meiotic protein, functions in chromosome synapsis and crossover interference

The TAM1 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is expressed specifically during meiosis and encodes a protein that localizes to the ends of meiotic chromosomes. In a tam1 null mutant, there is an increase in the frequency of chromosomes that fail to recombine and an associated increase in homolog nondisjunction at meiosis I. The tam1 mutant also displays an increased frequency of precocious separation of sister chromatids and a reduced efficiency of distributive disjunction. The defect in distributive disjunction may be attributable to overloading of the distributive system by the increased number of nonrecombinant chromosomes. Recombination is not impaired in the tam1 mutant, but crossover interference is reduced substantially. In addition, chromosome synapsis is delayed in tam1 strains. The combination of a defect in synapsis and a reduction in interference is consistent with previous studies suggesting a role for the synaptonemal complex in regulating crossover distribution. tam1 is the only known yeast mutant in which the control of crossover distribution is impaired, but the frequency of crossing over is unaffected. We discuss here possibilities for how a telomere-associated protein might function in chromosome synapsis and crossover interference.

The transcriptional basis of chromosome pairing

Pairing between homologous chromosomes is essential for successful meiosis; generally only paired homologs recombine and segregate correctly into haploid germ cells. Homologs also pair in some somatic cells (e.g. in diploid and polytene cells of Drosophila). How homologs find their partners is a mystery. First, I review some explanations of how they might do so; most involve base-pairing (i.e. DNA-DNA) interactions. Then I discuss the remarkable fact that chromosomes only pair when they are transcriptionally active. Finally, I present a general model for pairing based upon the DNA-protein interactions involved in transcription. Each chromosome in the haploid set has a unique array of transcription units strung along its length. Therefore, each chromatin fibre will be folded into a unique array of loops associated with clusters of polymerases and transcription factors; only homologs share similar arrays. As these loops and clusters, or transcription factories, move continually, they make and break contact with others. Correct pairing would be nucleated when a promoter in a loop tethered to one factory binds to a homologous polymerizing site in another factory, before transcription stabilizes the association. This increases the chances that adjacent promoters will bind to their homologs, so that chromosomes eventually become zipped together with their partners. Pairing is then the inevitable consequence of transcription of partially-condensed chromosomes.