Transvaginal US and hysterosonography in postmenopausal women with breast cancer receiving tamoxifen: correlation with hysteroscopy and pathologic study

Surgical complications of oncological treatments: A narrative review

Gastrointestinal complications are common in patients undergoing various forms of cancer treatments, including chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and molecular-targeted therapies. Surgical complications of oncologic therapies can occur in the upper gastrointestinal tract, small bowel, colon, and rectum. The mechanisms of action of these therapies are different. Chemotherapy includes cytotoxic drugs, which block the activity of cancer cells by targeting intracellular DNA, RNA, or proteins. Gastrointestinal symptoms are very common during chemotherapy, due to a direct effect on the intestinal mucosa resulting in edema, inflammation, ulceration, and stricture. Serious adverse events have been described as complications of molecular targeted therapies, including bowel perforation, bleeding, and pneumatosis intestinalis, which may require surgical evaluation. Radiotherapy is a local anti-cancer therapy, which uses ionizing radiation to cause inhibition of cell division and ultimately lead to cell death. Complications related to radiotherapy can be both acute and chronic. Ablative therapies, including radiofrequency, laser, microwave, cryoablation, and chemical ablation with acetic acid or ethanol, can cause thermal or chemical injuries to the nearby structures. Treatment of the different gastrointestinal complications should be tailored to the individual patient and based on the underlying pathophysiology of the complication. Furthermore, it is important to know the stage and prognosis of the disease, and a multidisciplinary approach is necessary to personalize the surgical treatment. The purpose of this narrative review is to describe complications related to different oncologic therapies that may require surgical interventions.

A 12-month extension study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of asoprisnil in women with heavy menstrual bleeding and uterine fibroids

STUDY QUESTION

What is the safety and efficacy profile during long-term (12–24 months) uninterrupted treatment with the selective progesterone receptor modulator asoprisnil, 10 and 25 mg in women with heavy menstrual bleeding (HMB) associated with uterine fibroids?

SUMMARY ANSWER

Uninterrupted treatment with asoprisnil should be avoided due to endometrial safety concerns and unknown potential long-term consequences.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Asoprisnil was well tolerated in shorter-term studies and effectively suppressed HMB and reduced fibroid volume.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

Women with uterine fibroids who had previously received placebo (n = 87) or asoprisnil 10 mg (n = 221) or 25 mg (n = 215) for 12 months in two double-blind studies entered this randomized uncontrolled extension study and received up to 12 additional months of treatment followed by 6 months of post-treatment follow-up. Women who previously received placebo were re-randomized to either asoprisnil 10 or 25 mg for the extension study. This report focuses on the 436 women who received asoprisnil in the double-blind studies and this extension study. Results for women who previously received placebo in the double-blind studies are not described.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

Women ≥18 years of age who completed a 12-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, had estradiol levels indicating that they were not menopausal and had no endometrial hyperplasia or other significant endometrial pathology were eligible. The safety endpoints were focused on endometrial assessments. The composite primary efficacy endpoint was the proportion of women who demonstrated a response to treatment by meeting all three of the following criteria at the final month for participants who prematurely discontinued or at month 12 for those who completed the study: a reduction from initial baseline to final visit of ≥50% in the menstrual pictogram score, hemoglobin concentration ≥11 g/dl or an increase of ≥1 g/dl from initial baseline at the final visit, and no surgical or invasive intervention for uterine fibroids. Other efficacy endpoints included rates for amenorrhea and suppression of bleeding, changes in fibroid and uterine volume and changes in hematologic parameters. No statistical tests were planned or performed for this uncontrolled study.

MAIN RESULTS AND ROLE OF CHANCE

Imaging studies revealed a progressive increase in endometrial thickness and cystic changes that frequently prompted invasive diagnostic procedures. Endometrial biopsy results were consistent with antiproliferative effects of asoprisnil. Two cases of endometrial cancer were diagnosed. At the final month of this extension study (total duration of uninterrupted treatment up to 24 months), the primary efficacy endpoint was achieved in 86 and 92% of women in the asoprisnil 10- and 25-mg groups, respectively. During each month of treatment, amenorrhea was observed in the majority of women (up to 77 and 94% at 10 and 25 mg, respectively). There was a progressive, dose-dependent decrease in the volume of the primary fibroid with asoprisnil 10 and 25 mg (−55.7 and −75.2% median decrease, respectively, from baseline [i.e. the beginning of the placebo-controlled study] to month 12 [cumulative months 12–24] of this extension study). These effects were associated with improvements in quality of life measures.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

This study was uncontrolled, which limits the interpretation of safety and efficacy findings. The study also had multiple protocol amendments with the addition of diagnostic procedures and, because no active comparator was included, the potential place of asoprisnil in comparison to therapies such as GnRH agonists and surgery cannot be determined.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

Long-term, uninterrupted treatment with asoprisnil leads to prominent cystic endometrial changes that are consistent with the ‘late progesterone receptor modulator’ effects, which prompted invasive diagnostic procedures, although treatment efficacy is maintained. Although endometrial cancers were uncommon during both treatment and follow-up, these findings raise concerns regarding endometrial safety during uninterrupted long-term treatment with asoprisnil. This study shows that uninterrupted treatment with asoprisnil should be avoided due to safety concerns and unknown potential long-term consequences.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

AbbVie Inc. (prior sponsor, TAP Pharmaceutical Products Inc.) sponsored the study and contributed to the design and conduct of the study, data management, data analysis, interpretation of the data and the preparation and approval of the manuscript. Financial support for medical writing and editorial assistance was provided by AbbVie Inc. M. P. Diamond received research funding for the conduct of the study paid to the institution and is a consultant to AbbVie. He is a stockholder and board and director member of Advanced Reproductive Care. He has also received funding for study conduct paid to the institution for Bayer and ObsEva. E. A. Stewart participated as a site investigator in the phase 2 study of asoprisnil and served as a consultant to TAP Pharmaceuticals during the time of design and conduct of the studies while on the faculty of Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA. In the last 3 years, she has received support from National Institutes of Health grants HD063312, HS023418 and HD074711. She has served as a consultant for AbbVie Inc., Allergan, Bayer HealthCare AG and Myovant for consulting related to uterine leiomyoma and to Welltwigs for consulting related to infertility. She has received royalties from UpToDate and the Med Learning Group. A.R.W. Williams has acted as a consultant for TAP Pharmaceutical Products Inc. and Repros Therapeutics Inc. He has current consultancies with PregLem SA, Gedeon Richter, HRA Pharma and Bayer. B.R. Carr has served as consultant and received research funding from AbbVie Inc. and Synteract (Medicines360). E.R. Myers has served as consultant for AbbVie Inc., Allergan and Bayer. R.A. Feldman received compensation for serving as a principal investigator and participating in the conduct of the trial. W. Elger was a co-inventor of several patents related to asoprisnil.

C. Mattia-Goldberg is a former employee of AbbVie Inc. and owns AbbVie stock or stock options. B.M. Schwefel and K. Chwalisz are employees of AbbVie Inc. and own AbbVie stock or stock options.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT00156195 at clinicaltrials.gov.

The benefits of adding metformin to tamoxifen to protect the endometrium-A randomized placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

We investigated whether metformin prevents tamoxifen-induced endometrial changes and insulin resistance (IR) after a diagnosis of breast cancer.

METHODS

This was a single-centre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group trial. Postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive breast cancer taking tamoxifen were randomly allocated to metformin 850 mg or identical placebo, twice daily, for 52 weeks. Outcome measures included double endometrial thickness (ET) measured by transvaginal ultrasound, fasting insulin, glucose and IR estimated by the homeostasis model of assessment (HOMA-IR).

RESULTS

A total of 112 women were screened and 102 randomized. Results are presented as median (range). The 101 women who took at least one dose of medication were aged 56 (43-72) years, with 5(0.5-28) years postmenopause, and had taken tamoxifen for 28.9 (0-367.4) weeks. The baseline ET was 2.9 mm (1.4-21.9) for the placebo group (n = 52) and 2.5 mm (1.3-14.8) for the metformin group (n = 50). At 52 weeks, the median ET was statistically significantly lower for the metformin (n = 36) than for the placebo group (n = 45) (2.3 mm (1.4-7.8) vs 3.0 (1.2-11.3); P = 0.05). 13.3% allocated to placebo had an ET greater than 4 mm vs 5.7% for metformin (P = 0.26). There was no endometrial atypia or cancer. Compared with placebo, metformin resulted in significantly greater baseline-adjusted reductions in weight (P < 0.001), waist circumference (0.03) and HOMA-IR (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Metformin appears to inhibit tamoxifen-induced endometrial changes and has favourable metabolic effects. Further research into the adjuvant use of metformin after breast cancer and to prevent EH and cancer is warranted.

Post-menopausal bleeding - Is transvaginal ultrasound a useful first-line investigation in tamoxifen users?

Objective To evaluate the role of transvaginal ultrasound triage in women with a history of tamoxifen treatment who present with post-menopausal bleeding. Study design A retrospective review was undertaken of patients who presented with symptoms of post-menopausal bleeding and underwent ultrasound triage. Endometrial thickness and ultrasonographic features were then correlated with hysteroscopic and histopathological outcome data. The findings and outcomes for women with a history of tamoxifen use (tamoxifen group) were compared to those who had not taken tamoxifen (non-tamoxifen group). Results A total of 614 women with post-menopausal bleeding underwent transvaginal ultrasound triage, of whom 53 had a history of current or previous tamoxifen treatment. An endometrial thickness of ≥5 mm or the presence of other abnormal features was used to triage women to further investigation by hysteroscopy and biopsy. Endometrial thickness was significantly greater in the tamoxifen group (11 mm vs. 6 mm). Nearly all of the tamoxifen group were triaged to further investigation (98.1%), compared with significantly fewer in the non-tamoxifen group (68.3%) Overall, the incidence of endometrial pathology was also significantly higher in tamoxifen patients (43.4% vs. 31.7%). Conclusion For women presenting with post-menopausal bleeding, the use of transvaginal ultrasound as a triage tool is rarely helpful in evaluating women who have a history as tamoxifen use, as most will require further investigation with hysteroscopy and biopsy. A post-menopausal bleeding protocol that omits transvaginal ultrasound for women with a history of tamoxifen use may be an appropriate and effective pathway for managing these patients.

Systemic treatment in breast cancer: a primer for radiologists

Abstract

Cytotoxic chemotherapy, hormonal therapy and molecular targeted therapy are the three major classes of drugs used to treat breast cancer. Imaging modalities such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ¹⁸F-FDG positron emission tomography (PET)/CT and bone scintigraphy each have a distinct role in monitoring response and detecting drug toxicities associated with these treatments. The purpose of this article is to elucidate the various systemic therapies used in breast cancer, with an emphasis on the role of imaging in assessing treatment response and detecting treatment-related toxicities.

Teaching Points

• Cytotoxic chemotherapy is often used in combination with HER2-targeted and endocrine therapies.

• Endocrine and HER2-targeted therapies are recommended in hormone-receptor- and HER2-positive cases.

• CT is the workhorse for assessment of treatment response in breast cancer metastases.

• Alternate treatment response criteria can help in interpreting pseudoprogression in metastasis.

• Unique toxicities are associated with cytotoxic chemotherapy and with endocrine and HER2-targeted therapies.

Endometrial surveillance in tamoxifen users: role, timing and accuracy of hysteroscopic investigation: observational longitudinal cohort study

To determine the role, timing and indications for endometrial hysteroscopic investigation in relation to the clinical, ultrasound and histological features of the endometrium during tamoxifen (TAM) use. We performed an observational longitudinal cohort study (years 2007-2012) that investigated the endometria of 151 TAM users with hysteroscopy and histology. For all patients, gynaecological history, years of adjuvant treatment, ultrasound endometrial thickness measurement and indications for hysteroscopy were recorded. Hysteroscopic findings showed that 100% of patients referred for simple follow-up had no evidence of endometrial disease. We found a strong correlation between previous history of abnormal uterine bleeding (with or without endometrial thickening) and hysteroscopic suspicion of endometrial atypia that was confirmed by histology. Hysteroscopy had 83.3% sensitivity, 99% specificity, 83.3% positive predictive value (PPV) and 99% negative predictive value (NPV) in detecting endometrial atypia. No significant correlation was found between endometrial thickening to >5 mm without bleeding and histological atypia. Similarly, the duration of treatment was not related to endometrial thickening and histological atypia. Endometrial stromal hyperplasia was detected by histology in 70.5% of patients with endometrial thickness measurements ranging from 5 to 10 mm. In contrast, no atypia was detected when endometrial thickness was <5 mm. Ultrasound performed using a 5-mm cut-off threshold for endometrial thickness resulted in 100% sensitivity, 15% specificity, 4% PPV and 100% NPV in detecting endometrial atypia, while a 10-mm cut-off threshold resulted in 84% sensitivity, 69% specificity, 10% PPV and 99% NPV. Low-risk TAM users do not require different endometrial surveillance than the general population. Hysteroscopy could play a fundamental role in determining the endometrial status of patients before the initiation of TAM treatment and in assessing the endometrial status of patients when bleeding occurs.

The effect of tamoxifen on the genital tract

Tamoxifen is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) that is widely used in the treatment of patients with breast cancer and for chemoprophylaxis in high risk women. Tamoxifen results in a spectrum of abnormalities involving the genital tract, the most significant being an increased incidence of endometrial cancer and uterine sarcoma. This article reviews the effects of tamoxifen on the genital tract and the strengths and weaknesses of various imaging modalities for evaluating the endometrium.

Endometrial directed biopsy during sonohysterography using the NiGo device: prospective study in women with abnormal uterine bleeding

OBJECTIVE

To determine the accuracy of sonohysterography (SHG), combined with sonography-guided biopsies that are performed by using the NiGo device, in the diagnosis of endometrial pathologies in women with abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB).

DESIGN

Prospective study.

SETTING

Outpatient clinic.

PATIENT(S)

One hundred sixteen women with AUB (55 postmenopausal and 61 premenopausal).

INTERVENTION(S)

Patients underwent transvaginal sonography and SHG; when an endometrial condition needing a biopsy was diagnosed, the biopsy was performed both by using the NiGo device (ASL 1, Imperia, Italy) and by using Pipelle.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Feasibility of SHG and endometrial biopsy by NiGo.

RESULT(S)

Sonohysterography was successfully performed by using the NiGo device in 87.4% of the cases (92.6% of premenopausal women and 81.5% of postmenopausal women). Seventy-eight (86.7%) women were judged to require endometrial biopsy; the NiGo device allowed obtaining an adequate biopsy for histological evaluation in 74 cases (94.9%). There was no statistically significant difference in efficacy between the NiGo and Pipelle in providing a specimen that was adequate for histological evaluation. Although no significant difference was observed in the histological diagnosis performed on the specimens obtained by the two techniques, NiGo allowed diagnosis of more focal lesions (simple hyperplasia, endometrial polyps, and myomas).

CONCLUSION(S)

The NiGo device allows an adequate biopsy for histological evaluation to be obtained during SHG in an outpatient setting.

A new technique to obtain endometrial directed biopsy during sonohysterography: the NiGo device

The primary goal of the clinical evaluation of abnormal uterine bleeding is to establish a specific diagnosis in the most efficient and least invasive manner possible. Hysteroscopy (HS) allows physicians to obtain directed biopsy in addition to direct visualization of the uterine cavity and lesions, but often requires ambulatory surgery centers and some anesthesia, or can potentially result in significant patient discomfort. Sonohysterography (SHG) is less invasive than HS but does not allow a histologic sample. A new technique, called the Nicoletti-Gorlero (NiGo) device, was developed and evaluated to obtain histologic results during SHG. This study is a prospective, observational evaluation between the NiGo device technique and standard HS to obtain endometrial samples. The NiGo device was used to obtain an endometrial sample during SHG in 18 women. In a subsequent session, HS was performed to verify the results. From January 2005 through November 2005 both procedures (SHG + biopsy and HS) were performed on 18 patients. The SHG procedures using the NiGo forcep were performed successfully on 15 out of 18 women, and the endometrial sample was obtained in 14 out of 15 patients. In one patient, the endometrial biopsy obtained provided too little tissue to accomplish histologic evaluation. All 13 pathologic results obtained with the NiGo device were identical with those subsequently obtained with HS. The office-based HS procedure was not successful in two women; in these women, an HS procedure performed in the operating room was necessary. The NiGo device technique allows the physician to obtain sonographic-guided biopsies of the entire endometrium during SHG. The technique is less invasive compared with HS. In our small series, there were no complications during the procedure.

MR Imaging of Benign Uterine Disease

MR provides excellent depiction of the female pelvic anatomy and has become the imaging modality of choice for the accurate diagnosis of numerous benign gynecologic conditions. Detection and characterization of leiomyomata and adenomyosis is performed routinely at many centers, and MR plays an important role in stratifying patients into appropriate treatment options. MR imaging is also uniquely well suited to the evaluation of gynecologic conditions that occur during pregnancy and in the postpartum period. This article describes MR protocols and the typical findings of various benign conditions of the uterine corpus and cervix, including congenital anomalies, leiomyomas, adenomyosis, and complications related to pregnancy.

Uterine effects of tamoxifen: a prospective study

The purpose of the study was to evaluate tamoxifen-associated changes in the vagina and uterus in postmenopausal breast cancer patients. Between June 1994 and December 1998, 45 patients enrolled in a prospective study before commencing tamoxifen therapy. Patients with endometrial thickness >5 mm or neoplasia were excluded. Transvaginal ultrasonography, vaginal maturation indexes (VMI), and endometrial biopsy were performed at baseline and repeated at 6 months (n= 42), 1 year (n= 39), 2 years (n= 32), 3 years (n= 26), 4 years (n= 19), and 5 years (n= 15). For the 39 patients followed for 1 year, VMI (% parabasal/intermediate/superficial) was 21/71/8 at baseline compared with 1/90/9 at 1 year (P value = 0.0008/0.001/0.78). At baseline, mean endometrial thickness and uterine volume were 2.6 mm and 64 cm(3), respectively, compared with 5.8 mm and 84 cm(3) at 1 year (P= 0.0002, 0.002). At baseline, 80% of patients had atrophic endometrium and 9% proliferative endometrium compared with 61% and 26% at 1 year, respectively (P= 0.04). No cases of endometrial hyperplasia or adenocarcinoma were detected. Findings observed at 6 months persisted through 5 years of follow-up. Tamoxifen exerts a weak estrogenic effect on the vagina and uterus in highly prescreened postmenopausal women without preexisting endometrial pathology.

Pathology and physiopathology of adenomyosis

Adenomyosis is defined by the presence of endometrial mucosa within the myometrium. This probably occurs by invagination of the basalis endometrium into the myometrium. The process of invagination and intramyometrial spreading may be facilitated by the non-cyclic, anti-apoptotic activity of the basalis associated with relative hyper-oestrogenic states. Most cases of adenomyosis are discovered in multiparous women during the 'transitional' years (40-50 years), and the condition is associated with menorrhagia, dysmenorrhoea, endometrial polyps and leiomyomata uteri. Endometrioid adenocarcinoma is often associated with adenomyosis, is frequently of early stage and low histological grade, is hormone-sensitive, and has an excellent prognosis. Extension of malignant growth into foci of adenomyosis has no adverse effect on prognosis. Definite diagnosis and treatment of adenomyosis are obtained by hysterectomy. Although adenomyotic endometrial glands are hormone-sensitive, exogenous progestogenic agents are ineffective for the treatment of adenomyosis. Anti-oestrogenic danazol and gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogues induce suppression of adenomyosis, but their use must be of short duration. Surgical extirpation, therefore, is the best therapeutic option.