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Chen L, Lu Y, Zhou YF, Wang Y, Zhan HF, Zhao YT, Wang YL, Zhang FF, Chen H, Li X. The effects of weight loss-related amenorrhea on women's health and the therapeutic approaches: a narrative review. ANNALS OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2023; 11:132. [PMID: 36819572 PMCID: PMC9929756 DOI: 10.21037/atm-22-6366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Background and Objective Weight loss-related amenorrhea is defined as the reversible functional inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis associated with weight loss or low body weight, which occurs mostly in adolescents and women of reproductive age. The specific pathological mechanisms of this disease have not yet been elucidated, and the optimal evidence-based guidelines for its clinical assessment and management are limited. This review summarizes its adverse effects on female health, and the individualized, emerging, and multidisciplinary therapeutic approaches used to treat it. Methods We searched the PubMed, Web of Science, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases for Chinese and English literature on functional hypothalamic amenorrhea (FHA), and retrieved original articles (on basic and clinical research) and reviews published up to December 2022. Key Content and Findings We reviewed the findings on the unfavorable effects of weight loss-related amenorrhea with a focus on reproduction, the skeletal and cardiovascular system, other endocrine effects, and mental health. Lifestyle changes and hormonal replacement have been shown to alleviate the underlying causes and lead to the recovery of menstruation. However, the efficacy of treatments is affected by many factors, such as psychological stress and heterogeneity. Conclusions Weight loss-related amenorrhea, which is an important type of FHA, is manifested by anovulation and hypoestrogenism, and has both short- and long-term adverse effects on women's overall health. It is difficult to alleviate its underlying causes. Individualized treatments need to be optimized and emerging or multidisciplinary therapeutic approaches need to be explored that aim to recover normal menstruation and ovulation, eliminate the undesirable effects of prolonged hypoestrogenism and alleviate psychological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Chen
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China;,Department of Gynecology, Hunan Provincial People’s Hospital (The First Affiliated Hospital of Hunan Normal University), Changsha, China
| | - Ye Lu
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi-Fan Zhou
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hai-Feng Zhan
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China;,Department of Gynecology, Shanghai Jing’an Central Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yu-Ting Zhao
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yu-Lu Wang
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fei-Fei Zhang
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hang Chen
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Ruffing KM, Koltun KJ, De Souza MJ, Williams NI. Moderate Weight Loss is associated with Reductions in LH Pulse Frequency and Increases in 24-hour Cortisol with no change in Perceived Stress in Young Ovulatory Women. Physiol Behav 2022; 254:113885. [PMID: 35718216 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.113885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Determine the potential role of cortisol as an indicator of both metabolic and psychosocial stress and its relation to LH pulse dynamics during a three-month diet and exercise intervention causing moderate weight loss. METHODS Secondary analysis of a randomized, controlled trial that demonstrated the causal role of low energy availability in the disruption of the menstrual cycle. Twenty-one women aged (18-24 yrs), BMI (21.7± 1.9 kg·m-2), completed a baseline menstrual cycle and three intervention menstrual cycles of a controlled diet and supervised exercise program. Twenty-four-hour LH pulse dynamics (q10 min) and diurnal patterns of cortisol (q60 min) as well as Perceived Stress Scale scores were determined in the early follicular phase prior to the intervention and in the post intervention cycle. Pre to post comparisons were determined with paired t-tests, and Pearson bivariate correlations assessed associations. RESULTS Subjects lost weight (-2.8±1.97 kg) and LH pulse frequency declined pre=0.79±0.23 pulses·hr-1 to post=0.60±0.29 pulses·hr-1 (p=0.014). Weight loss was associated with an increase in cortisol AUC R=-0.473, (p=0.03) and the decline in LH pulse frequency R= 0.523; (p=0.026). Increases in cortisol AUC were associated with declines in LH pulse frequency R=-0.472; (p=0.048). The morning cortisol rise AUC increased from pre=2140±878 µg·dL-1 · day to post=2556±1067 µg·dL-1 · day (p=0.034). Changes in PSS were not associated with changes in LH or cortisol. CONCLUSION The initial perturbation of LH pulsatility with moderate diet and exercise is associated with metabolically driven increases in cortisol AUC with no influence of psychological stress.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kristen J Koltun
- Women's Health and Exercise Laboratory, Room 109 Noll Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Mary Jane De Souza
- Professor of Kinesiology and Physiology, Director, Women's Health and Exercise Laboratory, Room 104 Noll Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Nancy I Williams
- Professor and Head, Department of Kinesiology, Co-Director, Women's Health and Exercise Laboratory, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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Jurov I, Keay N, Hadžić V, Spudić D, Rauter S. Relationship between energy availability, energy conservation and cognitive restraint with performance measures in male endurance athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2021; 18:24. [PMID: 33736663 PMCID: PMC7977281 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-021-00419-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low energy availability in male athletes has gained a lot of attention in recent years, but direct evidence of its effects on health and performance is lacking. The aim of this research was to objectively measure energy availability (EA) in healthy male endurance athletes without pre-existing relative energy deficiency signs during pre-race season. METHODS Twelve trained endurance athletes (performance level 3, 4, and 5) participated in the cross-sectional controlled laboratory study. Fat-free mass, exercise energy expenditure, and energy intake were measured to calculate EA. Resting energy expenditure was measured and estimated to assess energy conservation. Three specific performance tests were used to assess endurance, agility, and explosive strength performance. For psychological evaluation, the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and a short Well-being questionnaire were completed. RESULTS Mean EA was 29.5 kcal/kg FFM/day. The majority (66.6%) had EA under the threshold for low EA in females. Critical cognitive restraint (≥13) was reported by 75% of participants. There were no differences in performance, blood values, or psychological evaluation when subjects were divided into two groups divided by EA = 30 kcal/kg FFM/day. Cognitive restraint was negatively associated with measured resting energy expenditure and energy conservation (r = -.578, p = .025 and r = -.549, p = .032, respectively). CONCLUSIONS The mean EA measured in this study supports the theory that the threshold for low EA in endurance male athletes might be under the threshold for females. In addition, we confirmed cognitive restraint could be useful for early detection of energy conservation. The high cognitive restraint as measured in our sample stressed the need of eating behavior screening in endurance athletes in order to reduce risk of any disordered eating patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iva Jurov
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova 22, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Nicola Keay
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | - Vedran Hadžić
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova 22, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Darjan Spudić
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova 22, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Samo Rauter
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova 22, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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4
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Koltun KJ, De Souza MJ, Scheid JL, Williams NI. Energy Availability Is Associated With Luteinizing Hormone Pulse Frequency and Induction of Luteal Phase Defects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2020; 105:5572295. [PMID: 31539053 PMCID: PMC6938264 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgz030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Determine the interrelations between reductions in energy availability (EA), luteinizing hormone (LH) pulse frequency, and the induction of menstrual disturbances in previously sedentary, ovulatory women. METHODS Secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial consisting of a 3-month controlled diet and supervised exercise program. EA was calculated daily by measured energy intake (kcal) and exercise energy expenditure (kcal) normalized to fat-free mass (kg) and averaged during baseline and each of 3 intervention menstrual cycles. Blood samples were obtained every 10 minutes for 24 hours in the early follicular phase before the intervention and after 3 months of diet and exercise (n = 14). LH pulse dynamics were assessed by Cluster. Linear mixed models determined whether EA predicts LH pulse frequency and LH pulse frequency predicts luteal phase defects (LPDs). RESULTS Subjects were 20 ± 1 years old, 165.1 ± 1.4 cm tall, and weighed 58.9 ± 1.5 kg. LH pulse frequency decreased from 0.82 ± 0.06 pulses/h to 0.63 ± 0.09 pulses/h (P = 0.048) as a result of the intervention which produced modest (-3.2 ± 0.6 kg) weight loss. EA, averaged across a menstrual cycle, predicted LH pulse frequency (P = 0.003) such that a single-unit decrease in EA was associated with a 0.017 pulses/h decrease in LH pulse frequency. LH pulse frequency in cycles with LPDs was 49% of that observed in cycles with no menstrual disturbances and for every 0.1-unit decrease in LH pulse frequency, the odds of having an LPD were 22× greater than having an optimal ovulatory cycle (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Modest reductions in EA over a prolonged period are associated with decreased LH pulse frequency and the induction of menstrual disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen J Koltun
- Women’s Health and Exercise Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Mary Jane De Souza
- Women’s Health and Exercise Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Jennifer L Scheid
- Women’s Health and Exercise Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Nancy I Williams
- Women’s Health and Exercise Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
- Correspondence and Reprint Requests: Nancy I. Williams, ScD, FACSM, FNAK, Department of Kinesiology, Women’s Health and Exercise Laboratory, The Pennsylvania State University, 276 Recreation Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA. E-mail:
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Krustrup P, Helge EW, Hansen PR, Aagaard P, Hagman M, Randers MB, de Sousa M, Mohr M. Effects of recreational football on women's fitness and health: adaptations and mechanisms. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 118:11-32. [PMID: 29164325 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3733-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The review describes the fitness and health effects of recreational football in women aged 18-65 years. The review documents that 2 × 1 h of recreational football training for 12-16 weeks causes marked improvements in maximal oxygen uptake (5-15%) and myocardial function in women. Moreover, mean arterial blood pressure was shown to decrease by 2-5 mmHg in normotensive women and 6-8 mmHg in hypertensive women. This review also show that short-term (< 4 months) and medium-term (4-16 months) recreational football training has major beneficial impact on metabolic health profile in women, with fat losses of 1-3 kg and improvements in blood lipid profile. Lastly, 2 × 1 h per week of recreational football training for women elevates lower extremity bone mineralisation by 1-5% and whole-body bone mineralization by 1-2% within 4-12-month interventions. These training adaptations are related to the high heart rates, high number of fast runs, and multiple changes of direction and speed occurring during recreational football training for untrained women. In conclusion, regular small-sided football training for women is an intense and versatile type of training that combines elements of high-intensity interval training (HIIT), endurance training and strength training, thereby providing optimal stimuli for cardiovascular, metabolic and musculoskeletal fitness. Recreational football, therefore, seems to be an effective tool for prevention and treatment of lifestyle diseases in young and middle-aged women, including hypertension, type 2 diabetes and osteopenia. Future research should elucidate effects of football training for elderly women, and as treatment and rehabilitation of breast cancer patients and other women patient groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Krustrup
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, SDU Sport and Health Sciences Cluster (SHSC), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 3450, Odense, Denmark. .,Sport and Health Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, St Luke's Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK.
| | - Eva Wulff Helge
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter R Hansen
- Department of Cardiology, Herlev-Gentofte University Hospital, Gentofte, Denmark
| | - Per Aagaard
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, SDU Sport and Health Sciences Cluster (SHSC), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 3450, Odense, Denmark
| | - Marie Hagman
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, SDU Sport and Health Sciences Cluster (SHSC), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 3450, Odense, Denmark
| | - Morten B Randers
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, SDU Sport and Health Sciences Cluster (SHSC), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 3450, Odense, Denmark
| | - Maysa de Sousa
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation, LIM-18, Endocrinology Division, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Magni Mohr
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, SDU Sport and Health Sciences Cluster (SHSC), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 3450, Odense, Denmark.,Centre of Health Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Faroe Islands, Tórshavn, Faroe Islands.,Center of Health and Human Performance, Department of Food and Nutrition, and Sport Science, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Pouchain Ribeiro Neto R, Clarke IJ, Conductier G. Alteration in the relationship between tanycytes and gonadotrophin-releasing hormone neurosecretory terminals following long-term metabolic manipulation in the sheep. J Neuroendocrinol 2017; 29. [PMID: 28722251 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Revised: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary gonadal axis is influenced by energy reserves, such that an increase or a decrease in adiposity may perturb the secretion and action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH). This is considered to be a result of the signalling of hormones such as leptin, which act upon neuronal systems controlling GnRH secretion. Other work shows plasticity in the relationship between tanycytes and GnRH neurosecretory terminals in the median eminence across the oestrous cycle and we hypothesised that a similar plasticity may occur with altered metabolic status. We studied Lean, Normal and Fat ovariectomised ewes, which displayed differences in gonadotrophin status, and investigated the relationship between tanycytes and GnRH neuroterminals. Under both Lean and Fat conditions, an altered anatomical arrangement between these two elements was observed in the vicinity of the blood vessels of the primary plexus of the hypophysial portal blood system. These data suggest that such plasticity is an important determinant of the rate of secretion of GnRH in animals of differing metabolic status and that this also contributes to the relative hypogonadotrophic condition prevailing with metabolic extremes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Pouchain Ribeiro Neto
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Neuroscience Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - I J Clarke
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Neuroscience Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - G Conductier
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Neuroscience Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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7
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Gordon CM, Ackerman KE, Berga SL, Kaplan JR, Mastorakos G, Misra M, Murad MH, Santoro NF, Warren MP. Functional Hypothalamic Amenorrhea: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2017; 102:1413-1439. [PMID: 28368518 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2017-00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 226] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
COSPONSORING ASSOCIATIONS The American Society for Reproductive Medicine, the European Society of Endocrinology, and the Pediatric Endocrine Society. This guideline was funded by the Endocrine Society. OBJECTIVE To formulate clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of functional hypothalamic amenorrhea (FHA). PARTICIPANTS The participants include an Endocrine Society-appointed task force of eight experts, a methodologist, and a medical writer. EVIDENCE This evidence-based guideline was developed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach to describe the strength of recommendations and the quality of evidence. The task force commissioned two systematic reviews and used the best available evidence from other published systematic reviews and individual studies. CONSENSUS PROCESS One group meeting, several conference calls, and e-mail communications enabled consensus. Endocrine Society committees and members and cosponsoring organizations reviewed and commented on preliminary drafts of this guideline. CONCLUSIONS FHA is a form of chronic anovulation, not due to identifiable organic causes, but often associated with stress, weight loss, excessive exercise, or a combination thereof. Investigations should include assessment of systemic and endocrinologic etiologies, as FHA is a diagnosis of exclusion. A multidisciplinary treatment approach is necessary, including medical, dietary, and mental health support. Medical complications include, among others, bone loss and infertility, and appropriate therapies are under debate and investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kathryn E Ackerman
- Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
| | - Sarah L Berga
- Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
| | - Jay R Kaplan
- Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27157
| | - George Mastorakos
- Areteio Hospital, Medical School, National and Capodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece 10674
| | | | - M Hassan Murad
- Division of Preventive Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905
| | | | - Michelle P Warren
- Center for Menopause, Hormonal Disorders, and Women's Health, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10021
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Gifford RM, Reynolds RM, Greeves J, Anderson RA, Woods DR. Reproductive dysfunction and associated pathology in women undergoing military training. J ROY ARMY MED CORPS 2017; 163:301-310. [DOI: 10.1136/jramc-2016-000727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Clarke IJ, Arbabi L. New concepts of the central control of reproduction, integrating influence of stress, metabolic state, and season. Domest Anim Endocrinol 2016; 56 Suppl:S165-79. [PMID: 27345314 DOI: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2016.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Gonadotropin releasing hormone is the primary driver of reproductive function and pulsatile GnRH secretion from the brain causes the synthesis and secretion of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. Recent work has revealed that the secretion of GnRH is controlled at the level of the GnRH secretory terminals in the median eminence. At this level, projections of kisspeptin cells from the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus are seen to be closely associated with fibers and terminals of GnRH cells. Direct application of kisspeptin into the median eminence causes release of GnRH. The kisspeptin cells are activated at the time of a natural "pulse" secretion of GnRH, as reflected in the secretion of LH. This appears to be due to input to the kisspeptin cells from glutamatergic cells in the basal hypothalamus, indicating that more than 1 neural element is involved in the secretion of GnRH. Because the GnRH secretory terminals are outside the blood-brain barrier, factors such as kisspeptin may be administered systemically to cause GnRH secretion; this offers opportunities for manipulation of the reproductive axis using factors that do not cross the blood-brain barrier. In particular, kisspeptin or analogs of the same may be used to activate reproduction in the nonbreeding season of domestic animals. Another brain peptide that influences reproductive function is gonadotropin inhibitory hormone (GnIH). Work in sheep shows that this peptide acts on GnRH neuronal perikarya, but projections to the median eminence also allow secretion into the hypophysial portal blood and action of GnIH on pituitary gonadotropes. GnIH cells are upregulated in anestrus, and infusion of GnIH can block the ovulatory surge in GnRH and/or LH secretion. Metabolic status may also affect the secretion of reproduction, and this could involve action of gut peptides and leptin. Neuropeptide Y and Y-receptor ligands have a negative impact on reproduction, and Neuropeptide Y production is markedly increased in negative energy balance; this may be the cause of lowered GnRH and gonadotropin secretion in this state. There is a complex interaction between appetite-regulating peptide neurons and kisspeptin neurons that enables the former to regulate the latter both positively and negatively. In terms of how GnRH secretion is reduced during stress, recent data indicate that GnIH cells are integrally involved, with increased input to the GnRH cells. The secretion of GnIH into the portal blood is not increased during stress, so the negative effect is most likely effected at the level of GnRH neuronal cell bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- I J Clarke
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - L Arbabi
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
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Rogers NH, Walsh H, Alvarez-Garcia O, Park S, Gaylinn B, Thorner MO, Smith RG. Metabolic Benefit of Chronic Caloric Restriction and Activation of Hypothalamic AGRP/NPY Neurons in Male Mice Is Independent of Ghrelin. Endocrinology 2016; 157:1430-42. [PMID: 26812158 PMCID: PMC4816730 DOI: 10.1210/en.2015-1745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Aging is associated with attenuated ghrelin signaling. During aging, chronic caloric restriction (CR) produces health benefits accompanied by enhanced ghrelin production. Ghrelin receptor (GH secretagogue receptor 1a) agonists administered to aging rodents and humans restore the young adult phenotype; therefore, we tested the hypothesis that the metabolic benefits of CR are mediated by endogenous ghrelin. Three month-old male mice lacking ghrelin (Ghrelin-/-) or ghrelin receptor (Ghsr-/-), and their wild-type (WT) littermates were randomly assigned to 2 groups: ad libitum (AL) fed and CR, where 40% food restriction was introduced gradually to allow Ghrelin-/- and Ghsr-/- mice to metabolically adapt and avoid severe hypoglycemia. Twelve months later, plasma ghrelin, metabolic parameters, ambulatory activity, hypothalamic and liver gene expression, as well as body composition were measured. CR increased plasma ghrelin and des-acyl ghrelin concentrations in WT and Ghsr-/- mice. CR of WT, Ghsr-/-, and Ghrelin-/- mice markedly improved metabolic flexibility, enhanced ambulatory activity, and reduced adiposity. Inactivation of Ghrelin or Ghsr had no effect on AL food intake or food anticipatory behavior. In contrast to the widely held belief that endogenous ghrelin regulates food intake, CR increased expression of hypothalamic Agrp and Npy, with reduced expression of Pomc across genotypes. In the AL context, ablation of ghrelin signaling markedly inhibited liver steatosis, which correlated with reduced Pparγ expression and enhanced Irs2 expression. Although CR and administration of GH secretagogue receptor 1a agonists both benefit the aging phenotype, we conclude the benefits of chronic CR are a consequence of enhanced metabolic flexibility independent of endogenous ghrelin or des-acyl ghrelin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole H Rogers
- Department of Metabolism and Aging (N.H.R., H.W., O.A.-G., S.P., R.G.S.), The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458; and Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism (B.G., M.O.T.), Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
| | - Heidi Walsh
- Department of Metabolism and Aging (N.H.R., H.W., O.A.-G., S.P., R.G.S.), The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458; and Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism (B.G., M.O.T.), Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
| | - Oscar Alvarez-Garcia
- Department of Metabolism and Aging (N.H.R., H.W., O.A.-G., S.P., R.G.S.), The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458; and Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism (B.G., M.O.T.), Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
| | - Seongjoon Park
- Department of Metabolism and Aging (N.H.R., H.W., O.A.-G., S.P., R.G.S.), The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458; and Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism (B.G., M.O.T.), Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
| | - Bruce Gaylinn
- Department of Metabolism and Aging (N.H.R., H.W., O.A.-G., S.P., R.G.S.), The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458; and Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism (B.G., M.O.T.), Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
| | - Michael O Thorner
- Department of Metabolism and Aging (N.H.R., H.W., O.A.-G., S.P., R.G.S.), The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458; and Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism (B.G., M.O.T.), Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
| | - Roy G Smith
- Department of Metabolism and Aging (N.H.R., H.W., O.A.-G., S.P., R.G.S.), The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, Florida 33458; and Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism (B.G., M.O.T.), Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
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Hagner-Derengowska M, Kałużny K, Hagner W, Plaskiewicz A, Bronisz A, Borkowska A, Budzyński J. The effect of a 10-week Nordic walking training program on the level of GH and LH in elderly women. Climacteric 2015; 18:835-40. [PMID: 26406397 DOI: 10.3109/13697137.2015.1058354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a 10-week Nordic walking training program on resting growth hormone (GH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) blood concentrations and their relationships to the values of inflammatory, metabolic, and muscle injury parameters in postmenopausal women with overweight and obesity. METHODS Thirty-two postmenopausal women with overweight or obesity (body mass index 30.5 ± 4.1 kg/m(2)), aged 59.6 ± 5.9 years were included in the investigation. Concentrations of GH, LH, C-reactive protein, total cholesterol, low density (LDL) and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, triglycerides and albumin, as well as the plasma activity of muscle enzymes such as creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase, were examined before and after the participants finished a 10-week Nordic walking rehabilitation program. RESULTS After a 10-week rehabilitation period in accordance with a Nordic walking program, significant increases in blood concentrations of GH (median 47.5%) and HDL cholesterol (on average by 0.1%) as well as a decrease in LH values (on average by 19%), total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides (all on a similar average by between 0.1 and 0.2%), creatine kinase (on average by 14%), lactate dehydrogenase (on average by 4%), C-reactive protein (on average by 24%), and body mass index (on average by 5.7%) were found. CONCLUSIONS Nordic walking for postmenopausal women with overweight and obesity led to favorable hormonal responses, as well as improvement in muscle integrity and nutritional and inflammatory states, suggesting chronic, regular exercise as an effective tool in protecting against menopause-related catabolic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - K Kałużny
- b * Chair and Clinic of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health Sciences , Poland
| | - W Hagner
- b * Chair and Clinic of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health Sciences , Poland
| | - A Plaskiewicz
- b * Chair and Clinic of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health Sciences , Poland
| | - A Bronisz
- c Chair of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Clinic of Metabolic Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine , Poland
| | - A Borkowska
- a Chair of Clinical Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health Sciences , Poland
| | - J Budzyński
- d Chair of Vascular and Internal Diseases, Faculty of Health Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń , Poland
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Mallinson RJ, De Souza MJ. Current perspectives on the etiology and manifestation of the "silent" component of the Female Athlete Triad. Int J Womens Health 2014; 6:451-67. [PMID: 24833922 PMCID: PMC4014372 DOI: 10.2147/ijwh.s38603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The Female Athlete Triad (Triad) represents a syndrome of three interrelated conditions that originate from chronically inadequate energy intake to compensate for energy expenditure; this environment results in insufficient stored energy to maintain physiological processes, a condition known as low energy availability. The physiological adaptations associated with low energy availability, in turn, contribute to menstrual cycle disturbances. The downstream effects of both low energy availability and suppressed estrogen concentrations synergistically impair bone health, leading to low bone mineral density, compromised bone structure and microarchitecture, and ultimately, a decrease in bone strength. Unlike the other components of the Triad, poor bone health often does not have overt symptoms, and therefore develops silently, unbeknownst to the athlete. Compromised bone health among female athletes increases the risk of fracture throughout the lifespan, highlighting the long-term health consequences of the Triad. The purpose of this review is to examine the current state of Triad research related to the third component of the Triad, ie, poor bone health, in an effort to summarize what we know, what we are learning, and what remains unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J Mallinson
- Department of Kinesiology, Women's Health and Exercise Laboratory in Noll Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Mary Jane De Souza
- Department of Kinesiology, Women's Health and Exercise Laboratory in Noll Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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Field M, Deaver S, Rhoads R, Collier R, Rhoads M. Effects of prolonged nutrient restriction on baseline and periprandial plasma ghrelin concentrations of postpubertal Holstein heifers. J Dairy Sci 2013; 96:6473-9. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2013-6844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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