Acid secretion-associated translocation of KCNJ15 in gastric parietal cells

Integrating proteomics and metabolomics to elucidate the regulatory mechanisms of pimpled egg production in chickens: Multi-omics analysis of the mechanism of pimpled egg formation

Eggshells not only protect the contents of the egg from external damage but are also a key factor influencing consumer choice, second only to price. In the later stages of egg production, the incidence of pimpled eggs significantly increases, severely affecting the hatchability and food safety of the eggs. This study compares the differences in the uterine proteomes and metabolomes of hens producing pimpled eggs and those producing normal eggs, aiming to identify the proteins and metabolites that may play a crucial role in the formation of pimpled eggs. A total of 242 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified in uterine tissue, of which 116 were upregulated and 126 were downregulated. Enrichment analysis revealed that the DEPs were enriched in pathways related to ion transport, energy metabolism, and immune responses. The study found that in the normal eggs (NE) group, HCO₃⁻ was predominantly transported via SLC4A1, although other transport pathways may also play a role. In contrast, in the pimpled eggs (PE) group, bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻) was primarily transported through SLC4A4. Additionally, a total of 44 differentially metabolites (DMs) were identified in the uterus, with 5'-Adenylic acid (ATP) being significantly downregulated in the PE group. The ions and matrix proteins required for eggshell formation are transported from uterine cells to the uterine fluid against a concentration gradient, a process that consumes a substantial amount of energy. The decrease in ATP concentration in the PE group may be a significant factor influencing the formation of pimpled eggs. Subsequently, we found that the DEPs and DMs were jointly enriched in several signaling pathways, including the FoxO signaling pathway related to energy metabolism, nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism, and tryptophan metabolism associated with immune response. Notably, the DMs involved in these signaling pathways were all downregulated in the PE group. Our research findings indicate that SLC4A1, SLC4A2, and ATP2B4 (DEPs), along with 5'-adenylic acid and trigonelline (DMs), influence the formation of eggshells through mechanisms related to energy metabolism, ion transport, and immune response. These DEPs and DMs may serve as potential biomarkers for the genetic improvement of eggshell quality.

Advancing Kir4.2 Channel Ligand Identification through Collision-Induced Affinity Selection Mass Spectrometry

The inwardly rectifying potassium Kir4.2 channel plays a crucial role in regulating membrane potentials and maintaining potassium homeostasis. Kir4.2 has been implicated in various physiological processes, including insulin secretion, gastric acid regulation, and the pathogenesis of central nervous system diseases. Despite its significance, the number of identified ligands for Kir4.2 remains limited. In this study, we established a method to directly observe ligands avoiding a requirement to observe the high-mass ligand-membrane protein-detergent complexes. This method used collision-induced affinity selection mass spectrometry (CIAS-MS) to identify ligands dissociated from the Kir4.2 channel-detergent complex. The CIAS-MS approach integrated all stages of affinity selection within the mass spectrometer, offering advantages in terms of time efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Additionally, we explored the effect of collisional voltage ramps on the dissociation behavior of the ligand and the ligand at different concentrations, demonstrating dose dependency.

Na+ and K+ transport and maturation stage ameloblast modulation

Introduction: Enamel mineralization requires calcium transport into the extracellular matrix for the synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HA) crystals. Formation of HA releases protons into the matrix, which are then neutralized when ameloblasts modulate from cells with apical invaginations, the so-called ruffle-ended ameloblasts (RE), to smooth-ended ameloblasts (SE). Ameloblast modulation is associated with the translocation of the calcium exchanger Nckx4 to the apical border of RE, to remove Na+ from the enamel matrix in exchange for Ca2+ and K+. As enamel matures, Na+ and K+ in the matrix progressively decrease. However, the transporter to remove K+ from mineralizing enamel has not been identified. Methods: Expression of K+ exchangers and channels in secretory and maturation stage of enamel organs were compared following an RNA-seq analysis. Kcnj15, which encodes the Kir4.2 inwardly rectifying K+ channel, was found to be the most upregulated internalizing K+ transporter in maturation stage of enamel organs. Kir4.2 was immunolocalized in wt, Nckx4-/-, Wdr72-/-, and fluorosed ameloblasts. Regulation of Wdr72 expression by pH was characterized in vitro and in vivo. Results: Kir4.2 immunolocalized to the apical border of wild type (wt) mouse RE and cytosol of SE, a spatial distribution pattern shared by NCKX4. In Nckx4-/- ameloblasts, Kir4.2 also localized to the apical surface of RE and cytosol of SE. However, in fluorosed and Wdr72-/- ameloblasts, in which vesicle trafficking is disrupted, Kir4.2 remained in the cytosol. In vitro, Wdr72 was upregulated in LS8 cells cultured in medium with a pH 6.2, which is the pH of the enamel matrix underlying RE, as compared to pH 7.2 under SE. Conclusion: Taken together these results suggest that Kir4.2 participates in K+ uptake by maturation ameloblasts, and that K+ and Na+ uptake by Kir4.2 and Nckx4, respectively, may be regulated by pH through WDR72-mediated endocytosis and membrane trafficking.

Gut microbiota and transcriptome analysis reveals a genetic component to dropping moisture in chickens

High dropping moisture (DM) in poultry production has deleterious effects on the environment, feeding cost, and public health of people and animals. To explore the contributing genetic components, we classified DM of 67-wk-old Rhode Island Red (RIR) hens at 4 different levels and evaluated the underlying genetic heritability. We found the heritability of DM to be 0.219, indicating a moderately heritable trait. We then selected chickens with the highest and lowest DM levels. Using transcriptome, we only detected 12 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between these 2 groups from the spleen, and 1,507 DEGs from intestinal tissues (jejunum and cecum). The low number of DEGs observed in the spleen suggests that differing moisture levels are not attributed to pathogenic infection. Fourteen of the intestinal high expressed genes are associated with water-salt metabolism (WSM). We also investigated the gut microbial composition by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Six different microbial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) (Cetobacterium, Sterolibacterium, Elusimicrobium, Roseburia, Faecalicoccus, and Megamonas) between the 2 groups from jejunum and cecum are potentially biomarkers related to DM levels. Our results identify a genetic component to chicken DM, and can guide breeding strategies.

Identification of a Goat Intersexuality-Associated Novel Variant Through Genome-Wide Resequencing and Hi-C

Background: Polled intersex syndrome (PIS) leads to reproductive disorders in goats and exerts a heavy influence on goat breeding. Since 2001, the core variant of an 11.7 kb deletion at ~129 Mb on chromosome 1 (CHI1) has been widely used as a genetic diagnostic criterion. In 2020, a ~0.48 Mb insertion within the PIS deletion was identified by sequencing in XX intersex goats. However, the suitability of this variation for the diagnosis of intersex goats worldwide and its further molecular genetic mechanism need to be clarified.

Results: The whole-genome selective sweep of intersex goats from China was performed with whole-genome next-generation sequencing technology for large sample populations and a case–control study on interbreeds. A series of candidate genes related to the goat intersexuality phenotype were found. We further confirmed that a ~0.48 Mb duplicated fragment (including ERG and KCNJ15) downstream of the ~20 Mb PIS region was reversely inserted into the PIS locus in intersex Chinese goats and was consistent with that in European Saanen and Valais black-necked goats. High-throughput chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) technology was then used to compare the 3D structures of the PIS variant neighborhood in CHI1 between intersex and non-intersex goats. A newly found structure was validated as an intrachromosomal rearrangement. This inserted duplication changed the original spatial structure of goat CHI1 and caused the appearance of several specific loop structures in the adjacent ~20 kb downstream region of FOXL2.

Conclusions: Results suggested that the novel complex PIS variant genome was sufficient as a broad-spectrum clinical diagnostic marker of XX intersexuality in goats from Europe and China. A series of private dense loop structures caused by segment insertion into the PIS deletion might affect the expression of FOXL2 or other neighboring novel candidate genes. However, these structures require further in-depth molecular biological experimental verification. In general, this study provided new insights for future research on the molecular genetic mechanism underlying female-to-male sex reversal in goats.

Defective bicarbonate reabsorption in Kir4.2 potassium channel deficient mice impairs acid-base balance and ammonia excretion

The kidneys excrete the daily acid load mainly by generating and excreting ammonia but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. Here we evaluated the role of the inwardly rectifying potassium channel subunit Kir4.2 (Kcnj15 gene product) in this process. In mice, Kir4.2 was present exclusively at the basolateral membrane of proximal tubular cells and disruption of Kcnj15 caused a hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis associated with a reduced threshold for bicarbonate in the absence of a generalized proximal tubule dysfunction. Urinary ammonium excretion rates in Kcnj15- deleted mice were inappropriate to acidosis under basal and acid-loading conditions, and not related to a failure to acidify urine or a reduced expression of ammonia transporters in the collecting duct. In contrast, the expression of key proteins involved in ammonia metabolism and secretion by proximal cells, namely the glutamine transporter SNAT3, the phosphate-dependent glutaminase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase enzymes, and the sodium-proton exchanger NHE-3 was inappropriate in Kcnj15-deleted mice. Additionally, Kcnj15 deletion depolarized the proximal cell membrane by decreasing the barium-sensitive component of the potassium conductance and caused an intracellular alkalinization. Thus, the Kir4.2 potassium channel subunit is a newly recognized regulator of proximal ammonia metabolism. The kidney consequences of its loss of function in mice support the proposal for KCNJ15 as a molecular basis for human isolated proximal renal tubular acidosis.

Gastric Parietal Cell Physiology and Helicobacter pylori-Induced Disease

Acidification of the gastric lumen poses a barrier to transit of potentially pathogenic bacteria and enables activation of pepsin to complement nutrient proteolysis initiated by salivary proteases. Histamine-induced activation of the PKA signaling pathway in gastric corpus parietal cells causes insertion of proton pumps into their apical plasma membranes. Parietal cell secretion and homeostasis are regulated by signaling pathways that control cytoskeletal changes required for apical membrane remodeling and organelle and proton pump activities. Helicobacter pylori colonization of human gastric mucosa affects gastric epithelial cell plasticity and homeostasis, promoting epithelial progression to neoplasia. By intervening in proton pump expression, H pylori regulates the abundance and diversity of microbiota that populate the intestinal lumen. We review stimulation-secretion coupling and renewal mechanisms in parietal cells and the mechanisms by which H pylori toxins and effectors alter cell secretory pathways (constitutive and regulated) and organelles to establish and maintain their inter- and intracellular niches. Studies of bacterial toxins and their effector proteins have provided insights into parietal cell physiology and the mechanisms by which pathogens gain control of cell activities, increasing our understanding of gastrointestinal physiology, microbial infectious disease, and immunology.

Loss of KCNJ15 expression promotes malignant phenotypes and correlates with poor prognosis in renal carcinoma

Background

KCNJ15 belongs to the inwardly rectifying potassium channel (KIR) family. Although members of the KIR family have been proven to play important roles in a variety of developmental processes, the molecular role and clinical effects of KCNJ15 in cancers remain unclear.

Purpose

The aim of this study was to identify the expression, biological functions and molecular mechanisms of KCNJ15 in renal cell carcinoma (RCC).

Methods

KCNJ15 mRNA expression was evaluated in kidney cancer tissue, paired adjacent normal tissue, and cell lines with qRT-PCR. KCNJ15 protein expression was investigated via western blotting and immunohistochemistry. In addition, the clinical and prognostic significance of KCNJ15 in RCC were assessed using Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazards analysis. In vitro, the effects of KCNJ15 on kidney cancer cells were evaluated by means of a cell counting kit-8, transwell assay along with flow cytometry, respectively. Moreover, the potential mechanism of KCNJ15 was demonstrated by Western blot.

Results

Here, we first found that KCNJ15 was significantly downregulated in RCC, and this low expression was an independent prognostic factor for clear cell RCC (ccRCC). Moreover, KCNJ15 was associated with advanced TNM stage (n=150, p=0.014) and histological grade (n=150, p=0.045). Furthermore, KCNJ15 overexpression significantly inhibited RCC cell proliferation, migration, and colony formation, arrested the cell cycle and induced apoptosis of RCC cells in vitro. The inhibitory effect of KCNJ15 overexpression may be regulated by its effects on the epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) process and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-7 and p21 expression.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that KCNJ15 may be a tumor suppressor in RCC and a possible target for RCC therapy.

Gastric Acid Secretion from Parietal Cells Is Mediated by a Ca2+ Efflux Channel in the Tubulovesicle

Gastric acid secretion by parietal cells requires trafficking and exocytosis of H/K-ATPase-rich tubulovesicles (TVs) toward apical membranes in response to histamine stimulation via cyclic AMP elevation. Here, we found that TRPML1 (ML1), a protein that is mutated in type IV mucolipidosis (ML-IV), is a tubulovesicular channel essential for TV exocytosis and acid secretion. Whereas ML-IV patients are reportedly achlorhydric, transgenic overexpression of ML1 in mouse parietal cells induced constitutive acid secretion. Gastric acid secretion was blocked and stimulated by ML1 inhibitors and agonists, respectively. Organelle-targeted Ca²⁺ imaging and direct patch-clamping of apical vacuolar membranes revealed that ML1 mediates a PKA-activated conductance on TV membranes that is required for histamine-induced Ca²⁺ release from TV stores. Hence, we demonstrated that ML1, acting as a Ca²⁺ channel in TVs, links transmitter-initiated cyclic nucleotide signaling with Ca²⁺-dependent TV exocytosis in parietal cells, providing a regulatory mechanism that could be targeted to manage acid-related gastric diseases.

Potassium Channelopathies and Gastrointestinal Ulceration

Potassium channels and transporters maintain potassium homeostasis and play significant roles in several different biological actions via potassium ion regulation. In previous decades, the key revelations that potassium channels and transporters are involved in the production of gastric acid and the regulation of secretion in the stomach have been recognized. Drugs used to treat peptic ulceration are often potassium transporter inhibitors. It has also been reported that potassium channels are involved in ulcerative colitis. Direct toxicity to the intestines from nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs has been associated with altered potassium channel activities. Several reports have indicated that the long-term use of the antianginal drug Nicorandil, an adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channel opener, increases the chances of ulceration and perforation from the oral to anal regions throughout the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Several of these drug features provide further insights into the role of potassium channels in the occurrence of ulceration in the GI tract. The purpose of this review is to investigate whether potassium channelopathies are involved in the mechanisms responsible for ulceration that occurs throughout the GI tract.

Computer modeling of gastric parietal cell: significance of canalicular space, gland lumen, and variable canalicular [K+]

A computer model, constructed for evaluation of integrated functioning of cellular components involved in acid secretion by the gastric parietal cell, has provided new interpretations of older experimental evidence, showing the functional significance of a canalicular space separated from a mucosal bath by a gland lumen and also shedding light on basolateral Cl(-) transport. The model shows 1) changes in levels of parietal cell secretion (with stimulation or H-K-ATPase inhibitors) result mainly from changes in electrochemical driving forces for apical K(+) and Cl(-) efflux, as canalicular [K(+)] ([K(+)]can) increases or decreases with changes in apical H(+)/K(+) exchange rate; 2) H-K-ATPase inhibition in frog gastric mucosa would increase [K(+)]can similarly with low or high mucosal [K(+)], depolarizing apical membrane voltage similarly, so electrogenic H(+) pumping is not indicated by inhibition causing similar increase in transepithelial potential difference (Vt) with 4 and 80 mM mucosal K(+); 3) decreased H(+) secretion during strongly mucosal-positive voltage clamping is consistent with an electroneutral H-K-ATPase being inhibited by greatly decreased [K(+)]can (Michaelis-Menten mechanism); 4) slow initial change ("long time-constant transient") in current or Vt with clamping of Vt or current involves slow change in [K(+)]can; 5) the Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) symporter (NKCC) is likely to have a significant role in Cl(-) influx, despite evidence that it is not necessary for acid secretion; and 6) relative contributions of Cl(-)/HCO3 (-) exchanger (AE2) and NKCC to Cl(-) influx would differ greatly between resting and stimulated states, possibly explaining reported differences in physiological characteristics of stimulated open-circuit Cl(-) secretion (≈H(+)) and resting short-circuit Cl(-) secretion (>>H(+)).

The first whole genome and transcriptome of the cinereous vulture reveals adaptation in the gastric and immune defense systems and possible convergent evolution between the Old and New World vultures

BACKGROUND

The cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus, is the largest bird of prey and plays a key role in the ecosystem by removing carcasses, thus preventing the spread of diseases. Its feeding habits force it to cope with constant exposure to pathogens, making this species an interesting target for discovering functionally selected genetic variants. Furthermore, the presence of two independently evolved vulture groups, Old World and New World vultures, provides a natural experiment in which to investigate convergent evolution due to obligate scavenging.

RESULTS

We sequenced the genome of a cinereous vulture, and mapped it to the bald eagle reference genome, a close relative with a divergence time of 18 million years. By comparing the cinereous vulture to other avian genomes, we find positively selected genetic variations in this species associated with respiration, likely linked to their ability of immune defense responses and gastric acid secretion, consistent with their ability to digest carcasses. Comparisons between the Old World and New World vulture groups suggest convergent gene evolution. We assemble the cinereous vulture blood transcriptome from a second individual, and annotate genes. Finally, we infer the demographic history of the cinereous vulture which shows marked fluctuations in effective population size during the late Pleistocene.

CONCLUSIONS

We present the first genome and transcriptome analyses of the cinereous vulture compared to other avian genomes and transcriptomes, revealing genetic signatures of dietary and environmental adaptations accompanied by possible convergent evolution between the Old World and New World vultures.

Potassium channel KCNJ15 is required for histamine-stimulated gastric acid secretion

Gastric acid secretion is mediated by the K+-dependent proton pump (H+,K+-ATPase), which requires a continuous supply of K+ at the luminal side of the apical membrane. Several K+ channels are implicated in gastric acid secretion. However, the identity of the K+ channel(s) responsible for apical K+ supply is still elusive. Our previous studies have shown the translocation of KCNJ15 from cytoplasmic vesicles to the apical membrane on stimulation, indicating its involvement in gastric acid secretion. In this study, the stimulation associated trafficking of KCNJ15 was observed in a more native context with a live cell imaging system. KCNJ15 molecules in resting live cells were scattered in cytoplasm but exhibited apical localization after stimulation. Furthermore, knocking down KCNJ15 expression with a short hairpin RNA adenoviral construct abolished histamine-stimulated acid secretion in rabbit primary parietal cells. Moreover, KCNJ15, like H+,K+-ATPase, was detected in all of the parietal cells by immunofluorescence staining, whereas only about half of the parietal cells were positive for KCNQ1 under the same condition. Consistently, the endogenous protein levels of KCNJ15, analyzed by Western blotting, were higher than those of KCNQ1 in the gastric mucosa of human, mouse, and rabbit. These results provide evidence for a major role of KCNJ15 in apical K+ supply during stimulated acid secretion.

Transcriptomic analysis to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that underlie feed efficiency in meat-type chickens

Feed efficiency phenotypes defined by genotypes or gene markers are unknown. To date, there are only limited studies on global gene expression profiling on feed efficiency. The objective of this study was to identify genes and pathways associated with residual feed intake (RFI) through transcriptional profiling of duodenum at two different ages in a chicken population divergently selected for low (LRFI) or high (HRFI) RFI. The global gene expression differences in LRFI and HRFI were assessed by the Affymetrix GeneChip(®) Chicken Genome Array and RT-PCR using duodenal tissue on days 35 and 42. The Ingenuity Pathway Analysis program was used to identify canonical and gene network pathways associated with RFI. A global view of gene expression differences between LRFI and HRFI suggest that RFI can be explained by differences in cell division, growth, proliferation and apoptosis, protein synthesis, lipid metabolism, and molecular transport of cellular molecules. Chickens selected for improved RFI achieve efficiency by reducing feed intake with a nominal or no change in weight gain by either up-regulating CD36, PPARα, HMGCS2, GCG or down-regulating PCSK2, CALB1, SAT1, and SGK1 genes within the lipid metabolism, small molecule biochemistry, molecular transport, cell death, and protein synthesis molecular and cellular functions. Chickens selected for reduced RFI via reduced feed intake with no change in weight gain achieve feed efficiency for growth by the up-regulation of genes that reduce appetite with increased cellular oxidative stress, prolonged cell cycle, DNA damage, and apoptosis in addition to increased oxidation of dietary fat and efficient fatty acids transported from the intestines.

Molecular aspects of structure, gating, and physiology of pH-sensitive background K2P and Kir K+-transport channels

K(+) channels fulfill roles spanning from the control of excitability to the regulation of transepithelial transport. Here we review two groups of K(+) channels, pH-regulated K2P channels and the transport group of Kir channels. After considering advances in the molecular aspects of their gating based on structural and functional studies, we examine their participation in certain chosen physiological and pathophysiological scenarios. Crystal structures of K2P and Kir channels reveal rather unique features with important consequences for the gating mechanisms. Important tasks of these channels are discussed in kidney physiology and disease, K(+) homeostasis in the brain by Kir channel-equipped glia, and central functions in the hearing mechanism in the inner ear and in acid secretion by parietal cells in the stomach. K2P channels fulfill a crucial part in central chemoreception probably by virtue of their pH sensitivity and are central to adrenal secretion of aldosterone. Finally, some unorthodox behaviors of the selectivity filters of K2P channels might explain their normal and pathological functions. Although a great deal has been learned about structure, molecular details of gating, and physiological functions of K2P and Kir K(+)-transport channels, this has been only scratching at the surface. More molecular and animal studies are clearly needed to deepen our knowledge.

Differential gene expression in the oxyntic and pyloric mucosa of the young pig

The stomach is often considered a single compartment, although morphological differences among specific areas are well known. Oxyntic mucosa (OXY) and pyloric mucosa (PYL, in other species called antral mucosa) are primarily equipped for acid secretion and gastrin production, respectively, while it is not yet clear how the remainder of genes expressed differs in these areas. Here, the differential gene expression between OXY and PYL mucosa was assessed in seven starter pigs. Total RNA expression was analyzed by whole genome Affymetrix Porcine Gene 1.1_ST array strips. Exploratory functional analysis of gene expression values was done by Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, comparing OXY and PYL. Normalized enrichment scores (NESs) were calculated for each gene (statistical significance defined when False Discovery Rate % <25 and P-values of NES<0.05). Expression values were selected for a set of 44 genes and the effect of point of gastric sample was tested by analysis of variance with the procedure for repeated measures. In OXY, HYDROGEN ION TRANSMEMBRANE TRANSPORTER ACTIVITY gene set was the most enriched set compared to PYL, including the two genes for H⁺/K⁺-ATPase. Pathways related to mitochondrial activity and feeding behavior were also enriched (primarily cholecystokinin receptors and ghrelin). Aquaporin 4 was the top-ranking gene. In PYL, two gene sets were enriched compared with OXY: LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION and LIPID RAFT, a gene set involved in cholesterol-rich microdomains of the plasma membrane. The single most differentially expressed genes were gastrin and secretoglobin 1A, member 1, presumably located in the epithelial line, to inactivate inflammatory mediators. Several genes related to mucosal integrity, immune response, detoxification and epithelium renewal were also enriched in PYL (P<0.05). The data indicate that there is significant differential gene expression between OXY of the young pig and PYL and further functional studies are needed to confirm their physiological importance.

Gastric acid, calcium absorption, and their impact on bone health

Calcium balance is essential for a multitude of physiological processes, ranging from cell signaling to maintenance of bone health. Adequate intestinal absorption of calcium is a major factor for maintaining systemic calcium homeostasis. Recent observations indicate that a reduction of gastric acidity may impair effective calcium uptake through the intestine. This article reviews the physiology of gastric acid secretion, intestinal calcium absorption, and their respective neuroendocrine regulation and explores the physiological basis of a potential link between these individual systems.

Gastric secretion

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review summarizes the past year's literature regarding the regulation of gastric exocrine and endocrine secretion, both basic science and clinical.

RECENT FINDINGS

Gastric acid secretion facilitates the digestion of protein as well as the absorption of iron, calcium, vitamin B12, and certain medications as well as prevents bacterial overgrowth, enteric infection, and possibly community-acquired pneumonia, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and IgE-mediated food allergy. It is regulated by neural (e.g., pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide), hormonal (e.g., gastrin, ghrelin, and apelin), and paracrine (e.g., histamine) pathways as well as by chemical (e.g., amino acids) and bacterial stimuli (e.g., Helicobacter pylori). Novel peptides, which may possess physiologic function, have been identified in gastric mucosal neuroendocrine cells including parathyroid hormone-like hormone in histamine-secreting enterochromaffin-like cells and hepcidin in acid-secreting parietal cells. The secretion of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells involves translocation of the proton pump, HK-ATPase, to the apical membrane along with activation of apical chloride and potassium channels. Serum markers include chromogranin A for neuroendocrine tumors, pepsinogen I for gastric atrophy, and pepsinogen II for H. pylori infection.

SUMMARY

We continue to make progress in our understanding of the regulation of gastric acid secretion in health and disease.