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Jufar AH, Evans RG, May CN, Hood SG, Betrie AH, Trask‐Marino A, Bellomo R, Lankadeva YR. The effects of recruitment of renal functional reserve on renal cortical and medullary oxygenation in non-anesthetized sheep. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2023; 237:e13919. [PMID: 36598336 PMCID: PMC10909474 DOI: 10.1111/apha.13919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
AIM Recruitment of renal functional reserve (RFR) with amino acid loading increases renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate. However, its effects on renal cortical and medullary oxygenation have not been determined. Accordingly, we tested the effects of recruitment of RFR on renal cortical and medullary oxygenation in non-anesthetized sheep. METHODS Under general anesthesia, we instrumented 10 sheep to enable subsequent continuous measurements of systemic and renal hemodynamics, renal oxygen delivery and consumption, and cortical and medullary tissue oxygen tension (PO2 ). We then measured the effects of recruitment of RFR with an intravenous infusion of 500 ml of a clinically used amino acid solution (10% Synthamin® 17) in the non-anesthetized state. RESULTS Compared with baseline, Synthamin® 17 infusion significantly increased renal oxygen delivery mean ± SD maximum increase: (from 0.79 ± 0.17 to 1.06 ± 0.16 ml/kg/min, p < 0.001), renal oxygen consumption (from 0.08 ± 0.01 to 0.15 ± 0.02 ml/kg/min, p < 0.001), and glomerular filtration rate (+45.2 ± 2.7%, p < 0.001). Renal cortical tissue PO2 increased by a maximum of 26.4 ± 1.1% (p = 0.001) and medullary tissue PO2 increased by a maximum of 23.9 ± 2.8% (p = 0. 001). CONCLUSIONS In non-anesthetized healthy sheep, recruitment of RFR improved renal cortical and medullary oxygenation. These observations might have implications for the use of recruitment of RFR for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alemayehu H. Jufar
- Pre‐Clinical Critical Care UnitFlorey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Department of PhysiologyBiomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash UniversityMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Roger G. Evans
- Pre‐Clinical Critical Care UnitFlorey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Department of PhysiologyBiomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash UniversityMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Clive N. May
- Pre‐Clinical Critical Care UnitFlorey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- Department of Critical CareMelbourne Medical School, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Sally G. Hood
- Pre‐Clinical Critical Care UnitFlorey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Ashenafi H. Betrie
- Pre‐Clinical Critical Care UnitFlorey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- Melbourne Dementia Research CentreFlorey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Anton Trask‐Marino
- Pre‐Clinical Critical Care UnitFlorey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Rinaldo Bellomo
- Pre‐Clinical Critical Care UnitFlorey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- Department of Critical CareMelbourne Medical School, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
| | - Yugeesh R. Lankadeva
- Pre‐Clinical Critical Care UnitFlorey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
- Department of Critical CareMelbourne Medical School, University of MelbourneMelbourneVictoriaAustralia
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2
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Edwards A, Kurtcuoglu V. Renal blood flow and oxygenation. Pflugers Arch 2022; 474:759-770. [PMID: 35438336 PMCID: PMC9338895 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-022-02690-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Our kidneys receive about one-fifth of the cardiac output at rest and have a low oxygen extraction ratio, but may sustain, under some conditions, hypoxic injuries that might lead to chronic kidney disease. This is due to large regional variations in renal blood flow and oxygenation, which are the prerequisite for some and the consequence of other kidney functions. The concurrent operation of these functions is reliant on a multitude of neuro-hormonal signaling cascades and feedback loops that also include the regulation of renal blood flow and tissue oxygenation. Starting with open questions on regulatory processes and disease mechanisms, we review herein the literature on renal blood flow and oxygenation. We assess the current understanding of renal blood flow regulation, reasons for disparities in oxygen delivery and consumption, and the consequences of disbalance between O2 delivery, consumption, and removal. We further consider methods for measuring and computing blood velocity, flow rate, oxygen partial pressure, and related parameters and point out how limitations of these methods constitute important hurdles in this area of research. We conclude that to obtain an integrated understanding of the relation between renal function and renal blood flow and oxygenation, combined experimental and computational modeling studies will be needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurelie Edwards
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, 44 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Vartan Kurtcuoglu
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland. .,National Center of Competence in Research, Kidney.CH, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. .,Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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3
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Hicks CW, Clark TW, Cooper CJ, de Bhailís ÁM, De Carlo M, Green D, Małyszko J, Miglinas M, Textor SC, Herzog CA, Johansen KL, Reinecke H, Kalra PA. Atherosclerotic Renovascular Disease: A KDIGO (Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes) Controversies Conference. Am J Kidney Dis 2022; 79:289-301. [PMID: 34384806 PMCID: PMC9834909 DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2021.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The diagnosis and management of atherosclerotic renovascular disease (ARVD) is complex and controversial. Despite evidence from the ASTRAL (2009) and CORAL (2013) randomized controlled trials showing that percutaneous renal artery revascularization did not improve major outcomes compared with best medical therapy alone over 3-5 years, several areas of uncertainty remain. Medical therapy, including statin and antihypertensive medications, has evolved in recent years, and the use of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockers is now considered the primary means to treat hypertension in the setting of ARVD. However, the criteria to identify kidneys with renal artery stenosis that have potentially salvageable function are evolving. There are also data suggesting that certain high-risk populations with specific clinical manifestations may benefit from revascularization. Here, we provide an overview of the epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of ARVD based on consensus recommendations from a panel of physician experts who attended the recent KDIGO (Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes) Controversies Conference on central and peripheral arterial diseases in chronic kidney disease. Most focus is provided for contentious issues, and we also outline aspects of investigation and management of ARVD that require further research.
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4
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Lankadeva YR, May CN, Cochrane AD, Marino B, Hood SG, McCall PR, Okazaki N, Bellomo R, Evans RG. Influence of blood haemoglobin concentration on renal haemodynamics and oxygenation during experimental cardiopulmonary bypass in sheep. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2021; 231:e13583. [PMID: 33222404 DOI: 10.1111/apha.13583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
AIM Blood transfusion may improve renal oxygenation during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). In an ovine model of experimental CPB, we tested whether increasing blood haemoglobin concentration [Hb] from ~7 g dL-1 to ~9 g dL-1 improves renal tissue oxygenation. METHODS Ten sheep were studied while conscious, under stable isoflurane anaesthesia, and during 3 hours of CPB. In a randomized cross-over design, 5 sheep commenced bypass at a high target [Hb], achieved by adding 600 mL donor blood to the priming solution. After 90 minutes of CPB, PlasmaLyte® was added to the blood reservoir to achieve low target [Hb]. For the other 5 sheep, no blood was added to the prime, but after 90 minutes of CPB, 800-900 mL of donor blood was given to achieve a high target [Hb]. RESULTS Overall, CPB was associated with marked reductions in renal oxygen delivery (-50 ± 12%, mean ± 95% confidence interval) and medullary tissue oxygen tension (PO2 , -54 ± 29%). Renal fractional oxygen extraction was 17 ± 10% less during CPB at high [Hb] than low [Hb] (P = .04). Nevertheless, no increase in tissue PO2 in either the renal medulla (0 ± 6 mmHg change, P > .99) or cortex (-19 ± 13 mmHg change, P = .08) was detected with high [Hb]. CONCLUSIONS In experimental CPB blood transfusion to increase Hb concentration from ~7 g dL-1 to ~9 g dL-1 did not improve renal cortical or medullary tissue PO2 even though it decreased whole kidney oxygen extraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yugeesh R Lankadeva
- Pre-Clinical Critical Care Unit, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Integrated Critical Care, Department of Medicine and Radiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Clive N May
- Pre-Clinical Critical Care Unit, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Centre for Integrated Critical Care, Department of Medicine and Radiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrew D Cochrane
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Monash Health and Department of Surgery (School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health), Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Bruno Marino
- Cellsaving and Perfusion Resources, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Sally G Hood
- Pre-Clinical Critical Care Unit, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Peter R McCall
- Department of Anaesthesia, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
| | - Nobuki Okazaki
- Pre-Clinical Critical Care Unit, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Anesthesiology and Resuscitology, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Rinaldo Bellomo
- Centre for Integrated Critical Care, Department of Medicine and Radiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Intensive Care, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Iguchi N, Kosaka J, Iguchi Y, Evans RG, Bellomo R, May CN, Lankadeva YR. Systemic haemodynamic, renal perfusion and renal oxygenation responses to changes in inspired oxygen fraction during total intravenous or volatile anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth 2020; 125:192-200. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bja.2020.03.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
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6
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Ullah MM, Basile DP. Role of Renal Hypoxia in the Progression From Acute Kidney Injury to Chronic Kidney Disease. Semin Nephrol 2020; 39:567-580. [PMID: 31836039 DOI: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2019.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Over the past 20 years, there has been an increased appreciation of the long-term sequelae of acute kidney injury (AKI) and the potential development of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Several pathophysiologic features have been proposed to mediate AKI to CKD progression including maladaptive alterations in tubular, interstitial, inflammatory, and vascular cells. These alterations likely interact to culminate in the progression to CKD. In this article we focus primarily on evidence of vascular rarefaction secondary to AKI, and the potential mechanisms by which rarefaction occurs in relation to other alterations in tubular and interstitial compartments. We further focus on the potential that rarefaction contributes to renal hypoxia. Consideration of the role of hypoxia in AKI to CKD transition focuses on experimental evidence of persistent renal hypoxia after AKI and experimental maneuvers to evaluate the influence of hypoxia, per se, in progressive disease. Finally, consideration of methods to evaluate hypoxia in patients is provided with the suggestion that noninvasive measurement of renal hypoxia may provide insight into progression in post-AKI patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Mahbub Ullah
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiology, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN
| | - David P Basile
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN.
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7
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Aubert V, Kaminski J, Guillaud F, Hauet T, Hannaert P. A Computer Model of Oxygen Dynamics in the Cortex of the Rat Kidney at the Cell-Tissue Level. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E6246. [PMID: 31835730 PMCID: PMC6941061 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20246246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The renal cortex drives renal function. Hypoxia/reoxygenation are primary factors in ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injuries, but renal oxygenation per se is complex and awaits full elucidation. Few mathematical models address this issue: none captures cortical tissue heterogeneity. Using agent-based modeling, we develop the first model of cortical oxygenation at the cell-tissue level (RCM), based on first principles and careful bibliographical analysis. Entirely parameterized with Rat data, RCM is a morphometrically equivalent 2D-slice of cortical tissue, featuring peritubular capillaries (PTC), tubules and interstitium. It implements hemoglobin/O2 binding-release, oxygen diffusion, and consumption, as well as capillary and tubular flows. Inputs are renal blood flow RBF and PO2 feeds; output is average tissue PO2 (tPO2). After verification and sensitivity analysis, RCM was validated at steady-state (tPO2 37.7 ± 2.2 vs. 36.9 ± 6 mmHg) and under transients (ischemic oxygen half-time: 4.5 ± 2.5 vs. 2.3 ± 0.5 s in situ). Simulations confirm that PO2 is largely independent of RBF, except at low values. They suggest that, at least in the proximal tubule, the luminal flow dominantly contributes to oxygen delivery, while the contribution of capillaries increases under partial ischemia. Before addressing IR-induced injuries, upcoming developments include ATP production, adaptation to minutes-hours scale, and segmental and regional specification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Patrick Hannaert
- INSERM U1082-IRTOMIT, 86000 Poitiers, France; (V.A.); (J.K.); (F.G.); (T.H.)
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8
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Hypoxia and Renal Tubulointerstitial Fibrosis. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1165:467-485. [PMID: 31399980 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-8871-2_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxia, one of the most common causes of kidney injury, is a key pathological condition in various kidney diseases. Renal fibrosis is the terminal pathway involved in the continuous progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD), characterized by glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis (TIF). Recent studies have shown that hypoxia is a key factor promoting the progression of TIF. Loss of microvasculature, reduced oxygen dispersion, and metabolic abnormality of cells in the kidney are the main causes of the hypoxic state. Hypoxia can, in turn, profoundly affect the tubular epithelial cells, endothelial cells, pericytes, fibroblasts, inflammatory cells, and progenitor cells. In this chapter, we reviewed the critical roles of hypoxia in the pathophysiology of TIF and discussed the potential of anti-hypoxia as its promising therapeutic target.
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9
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Angiotensin II-induced hypertension in rats is only transiently accompanied by lower renal oxygenation. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16342. [PMID: 30397212 PMCID: PMC6218546 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-34211-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of the renin-angiotensin system may initiate chronic kidney disease. We hypothesised that renal hypoxia is a consequence of hemodynamic changes induced by angiotensin II and occurs prior to development of severe renal damage. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were infused continuously with angiotensin II (350 ng/kg/min) for 8 days. Mean arterial pressure (n = 5), cortical (n = 6) and medullary (n = 7) oxygenation (pO2) were continuously recorded by telemetry and renal tissue injury was scored. Angiotensin II increased arterial pressure gradually to 150 ± 18 mmHg. This was associated with transient reduction of oxygen levels in renal cortex (by 18 ± 2%) and medulla (by 17 ± 6%) at 10 ± 2 and 6 ± 1 hours, respectively after starting infusion. Thereafter oxygen levels normalised to pre-infusion levels and were maintained during the remainder of the infusion period. In rats receiving angiotensin II, adding losartan to drinking water (300 mg/L) only induced transient increase in renal oxygenation, despite normalisation of arterial pressure. In rats, renal hypoxia is only a transient phenomenon during initiation of angiotensin II-induced hypertension.
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10
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Ngo JP, Le B, Khan Z, Kett MM, Gardiner BS, Smith DW, Melhem MM, Maksimenko A, Pearson JT, Evans RG. Micro-computed tomographic analysis of the radial geometry of intrarenal artery-vein pairs in rats and rabbits: Comparison with light microscopy. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2017; 44:1241-1253. [PMID: 28795785 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.12842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 08/01/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
We assessed the utility of synchrotron-radiation micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) for quantification of the radial geometry of the renal cortical vasculature. The kidneys of nine rats and six rabbits were perfusion fixed and the renal circulation filled with Microfil. In order to assess shrinkage of Microfil, rat kidneys were imaged at the Australian Synchrotron immediately upon tissue preparation and then post fixed in paraformaldehyde and reimaged 24 hours later. The Microfil shrank only 2-5% over the 24 hour period. All subsequent micro-CT imaging was completed within 24 hours of sample preparation. After micro-CT imaging, the kidneys were processed for histological analysis. In both rat and rabbit kidneys, vascular structures identified in histological sections could be identified in two-dimensional (2D) micro-CT images from the original kidney. Vascular morphology was similar in the two sets of images. Radial geometry quantified by manual analysis of 2D images from micro-CT was consistent with corresponding data generated by light microscopy. However, due to limited spatial resolution when imaging a whole organ using contrast-enhanced micro-CT, only arteries ≥100 and ≥60 μm in diameter, for the rat and rabbit respectively, could be assessed. We conclude that it is feasible and valid to use micro-CT to quantify vascular geometry of the renal cortical circulation in both the rat and rabbit. However, a combination of light microscopic and micro-CT approaches are required to evaluate the spatial relationships between intrarenal arteries and veins over an extensive range of vessel size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer P Ngo
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Bianca Le
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Zohaib Khan
- School of Computer Science and Software Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia.,School of Information Technology and Mathematical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Michelle M Kett
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Bruce S Gardiner
- School of Engineering and Information Technology, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - David W Smith
- School of Computer Science and Software Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Mayer M Melhem
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Anton Maksimenko
- Imaging and Medical Beamline, Australian Synchrotron, Clayton, Vic., Australia
| | - James T Pearson
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.,Monash Biomedical Imaging Facility, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.,Department of Cardiac Physiology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Research Institute, Osaka, Japan
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
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11
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Sgouralis I, Kett MM, Ow CPC, Abdelkader A, Layton AT, Gardiner BS, Smith DW, Lankadeva YR, Evans RG. Bladder urine oxygen tension for assessing renal medullary oxygenation in rabbits: experimental and modeling studies. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2016; 311:R532-44. [PMID: 27385734 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00195.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Oxygen tension (Po2) of urine in the bladder could be used to monitor risk of acute kidney injury if it varies with medullary Po2 Therefore, we examined this relationship and characterized oxygen diffusion across walls of the ureter and bladder in anesthetized rabbits. A computational model was then developed to predict medullary Po2 from bladder urine Po2 Both intravenous infusion of [Phe(2),Ile(3),Orn(8)]-vasopressin and infusion of N(G)-nitro-l-arginine reduced urinary Po2 and medullary Po2 (8-17%), yet had opposite effects on renal blood flow and urine flow. Changes in bladder urine Po2 during these stimuli correlated strongly with changes in medullary Po2 (within-rabbit r(2) = 0.87-0.90). Differences in the Po2 of saline infused into the ureter close to the kidney could be detected in the bladder, although this was diminished at lesser ureteric flow. Diffusion of oxygen across the wall of the bladder was very slow, so it was not considered in the computational model. The model predicts Po2 in the pelvic ureter (presumed to reflect medullary Po2) from known values of bladder urine Po2, urine flow, and arterial Po2 Simulations suggest that, across a physiological range of urine flow in anesthetized rabbits (0.1-0.5 ml/min for a single kidney), a change in bladder urine Po2 explains 10-50% of the change in pelvic urine/medullary Po2 Thus, it is possible to infer changes in medullary Po2 from changes in urinary Po2, so urinary Po2 may have utility as a real-time biomarker of risk of acute kidney injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Sgouralis
- National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee
| | - Michelle M Kett
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Connie P C Ow
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Amany Abdelkader
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Anita T Layton
- Department of Mathematics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Bruce S Gardiner
- School of Engineering and Information Technology, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia
| | - David W Smith
- School of Computer Science and Software Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia; and
| | - Yugeesh R Lankadeva
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia;
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12
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Calzavacca P, Evans RG, Bailey M, Bellomo R, May CN. Variable responses of regional renal oxygenation and perfusion to vasoactive agents in awake sheep. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2015; 309:R1226-33. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00228.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Vasoactive agents are used in critical care to optimize circulatory function, but their effects on renal tissue oxygenation in the absence of anesthesia remain largely unknown. Therefore, we assessed the effects of multiple vasoactive agents on regional kidney oxygenation in awake sheep. Sheep were surgically instrumented with pulmonary and renal artery flow probes, and combination fiber-optic probes, in the renal cortex and medulla, comprising a fluorescence optode to measure tissue Po2 and a laser-Doppler probe to assess tissue perfusion. Carotid arterial and renal venous cannulas enabled measurement of arterial pressure and total renal oxygen delivery and consumption. Norepinephrine (0.1 or 0.8 μg·kg−1·min−1) dose-dependently reduced cortical and medullary laser Doppler flux (LDF) and Po2 without significantly altering renal blood flow (RBF), or renal oxygen delivery or consumption. Angiotensin II (9.8 ± 2.1 μg/h) reduced RBF by 21%, renal oxygen delivery by 28%, oxygen consumption by 18%, and medullary Po2 by 38%, but did not significantly alter cortical Po2 or cortical or medullary LDF. Arginine vasopressin (3.3 ± 0.5 μg/h) caused similar decreases in RBF and renal oxygen delivery, but did not significantly alter renal oxygen consumption or cortical or medullary LDF or Po2. Captopril had no observable effects on cortical or medullary LDF or Po2, at a dose that increased renal oxygen delivery by 24%, but did not significantly alter renal oxygen consumption. We conclude that vasoactive agents have diverse effects on regional kidney oxygenation in awake sheep that are not predictable from their effects on LDF, RBF, or total renal oxygen delivery and consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Calzavacca
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, AO Melegnano, PO Uboldo, Cernusco sul Naviglio, Italy
| | - Roger G. Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michael Bailey
- Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Research Center, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; and
| | - Rinaldo Bellomo
- Department of Intensive Care and Department of Medicine, Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
| | - Clive N. May
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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13
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Ergin B, Zuurbier CJ, Bezemer R, Kandil A, Almac E, Demirci C, Ince C. Ascorbic acid improves renal microcirculatory oxygenation in a rat model of renal I/R injury. J Transl Int Med 2015; 3:116-125. [PMID: 27847899 PMCID: PMC4936463 DOI: 10.1515/jtim-2015-0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and objectives Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a clinical condition associated with a degree of morbidity and mortality despite supportive care, and ischemia/reperfusion injury (I/R) is one of the main causes of AKI. The pathophysiology of I/R injury is a complex cascade of events including the release of free oxygen radicals followed by damage to proteins, lipids, mitochondria, and deranged tissue oxygenation. In this study, we investigated whether the antioxidant ascorbic acid would be able to largely prevent oxidative stress and consequently, reduce I/R-related injury to the kidneys in terms of oxygenation, inflammation, and renal failure. Materials and methods Rats were divided into three groups (n = 6/group): (1) a time control group; (2) a group subjected to renal ischemia for 60 min by high aortic occlusion followed by 2 h of reperfusion (I/R); and (3) a group subjected to I/R and treated with an i.v. 100 mg/kg bolus ascorbic acid 15 min before ischemia and continuous infusion of 50 mg/kg/hour for 2 h during reperfusion (I/R + AA). We measured renal tissue oxidative stress, microvascular oxygenation, renal oxygen delivery and consumption, and renal expression of inflammatory and injury markers. Results We demonstrated that aortic clamping and release resulted in increased oxidative stress and inflammation that was associated with a significant fall in systemic and renal hemodynamics and oxygenation parameters. The treatment of ascorbic acid completely abrogated oxidative stress and inflammatory parameters. However, it only partly improved microcirculatory oxygenation and was without any effect on anuria. Conclusion The ascorbic acid treatment partly improves microcirculatory oxygenation and prevents oxidative stress without restoring urine output in a severe I/R model of AKI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bulent Ergin
- Department of Translational Physiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Coert J Zuurbier
- Laboratory of Experimental Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Department of Anesthesiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rick Bezemer
- Department of Translational Physiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Asli Kandil
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Emre Almac
- Department of Anesthesiology, St. Antonius Hospital Nieuwegein, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Cihan Demirci
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Istanbul, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Can Ince
- Department of Translational Physiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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14
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Calzavacca P, Evans RG, Bailey M, Lankadeva YR, Bellomo R, May CN. Long-term measurement of renal cortical and medullary tissue oxygenation and perfusion in unanesthetized sheep. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2015; 308:R832-9. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00515.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The role of renal cortical and medullary hypoxia in the development of acute kidney injury is controversial, partly due to a lack of techniques for the long-term measurement of intrarenal oxygenation and perfusion in conscious animals. We have, therefore, developed a methodology to chronically implant combination probes to chronically measure renal cortical and medullary tissue perfusion and oxygen tension (tPo2) in conscious sheep and evaluated their responsiveness and reliability. A transit-time flow probe and a vascular occluder were surgically implanted on the left renal artery. At the same operation, dual fiber-optic probes, comprising a fluorescence optode to measure tPo2 and a laser-Doppler probe to assess tissue perfusion, were inserted into the renal cortex and medulla. In recovered conscious sheep ( n = 8) breathing room air, mean 24-h cortical and medullary tPo2 were similar (31.4 ± 0.6 and 29.7 ± 0.7 mmHg, respectively). In the renal cortex and medulla, a 20% reduction in renal blood flow (RBF) decreased perfusion (14.6 ± 8.6 and 41.2 ± 8.5%, respectively) and oxygenation (48.1 ± 8.5 and 72.4 ± 8.5%, respectively), with greater decreases during a 50% reduction in RBF. At autopsy, minimal fibrosis was observed around the probes. In summary, we have developed a technique to chronically implant fiber-optic probes in the renal cortex and medulla for recording tissue perfusion and oxygenation over many days. In normal resting conscious sheep, cortical and medullary tPo2 were similar. The responses to and recovery from renal artery occlusion, together with the consistent measurements over a 24-h period, demonstrate the responsiveness and stability of the probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Calzavacca
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Intensive Care and Department of Medicine, Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, AO Melegnano, PO Uboldo, Cernusco sul Naviglio, Italy
| | - Roger G. Evans
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; and
| | - Michael Bailey
- Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Research Centre, School of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Yugeesh R. Lankadeva
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Rinaldo Bellomo
- Department of Intensive Care and Department of Medicine, Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
| | - Clive N. May
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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15
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Textor SC, Lerman LO. Paradigm Shifts in Atherosclerotic Renovascular Disease: Where Are We Now? J Am Soc Nephrol 2015; 26:2074-80. [PMID: 25868641 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2014121274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Results of recent clinical trials and experimental studies indicate that whereas atherosclerotic renovascular disease can accelerate both systemic hypertension and tissue injury in the poststenotic kidney, restoring vessel patency alone is insufficient to recover kidney function for most subjects. Kidney injury in atherosclerotic renovascular disease reflects complex interactions among vascular rarefication, oxidative stress injury, and recruitment of inflammatory cellular elements that ultimately produce fibrosis. Classic paradigms for simply restoring blood flow are shifting to implementation of therapy targeting mitochondria and cell-based functions to allow regeneration of vascular, glomerular, and tubular structures sufficient to recover, or at least stabilize, renal function. These developments offer exciting possibilities of repair and regeneration of kidney tissue that may limit progressive CKD in atherosclerotic renovascular disease and may apply to other conditions in which inflammatory injury is a major common pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen C Textor
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Lilach O Lerman
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
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16
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Kalder J, Kokozidou M, Keschenau P, Tamm M, Greiner A, Koeppel TA, Tolba R, Jacobs MJ. Selective renal blood perfusion induces renal tubules injury in a porcine model. J Vasc Surg 2014; 63:778-87. [PMID: 25441670 DOI: 10.1016/j.jvs.2014.08.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Extracorporeal circulation is routinely used in thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm repair to preserve blood perfusion. Despite this protective measure, acute and chronic kidney disorders can develop. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish a new large-animal model to assess the efficacy of selective renal perfusion (SRP) with extracorporeal circulation in a setting of thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm repair. METHODS Eighteen pigs underwent a thoracolaparotomy, during with the aorta and renal arteries were exposed. The animals were divided into three cohorts of six pigs each: cohort I--control; cohort II--thoracic aortic clamping with distal aortic perfusion (DAP) using a roller pump; and cohort III--thoracic aortic clamping with DAP plus SRP. Kidney metabolism, kidney injury, and red blood cell damage were measured by oxygen extraction ratio (O2ER), neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, a marker for acute kidney damage, and serum free hemoglobin. RESULTS With normal mean arterial blood pressures, flow rates in the renal arteries during perfusion decreased to 75% (group II) with DAP and to 50% (group III) with SRP compared with the control animals (group I; P = .0279 for I vs II; P = .0002 for I vs III). Microcirculation, measured by microspheres, did not differ significantly among the groups. In contrast, O2ER (P = .0021 for I vs III) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (P = .0083 for I vs III) levels were significantly increased in group III, whereas free hemoglobin was increased in groups II and III (P = .0406 for I vs II; P = .0018 for I vs III). CONCLUSIONS SRP with a roller pump induces kidney tubule injury. Thus, distal aortic and SRP in our model does not provide adequate kidney protection. Furthermore, the perfusion system provokes red blood cell damage with increased free hemoglobin. Hence, the SRP perfusion technique should be revised and tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Kalder
- European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Department of Vascular Surgery, Aachen, Germany
| | - Maria Kokozidou
- European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Department of Vascular Surgery, Aachen, Germany
| | - Paula Keschenau
- European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Department of Vascular Surgery, Aachen, Germany
| | - Miriam Tamm
- Department of Medical Statistics, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Andreas Greiner
- European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Department of Vascular Surgery, Aachen, Germany
| | - Thomas A Koeppel
- European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Department of Vascular Surgery, Aachen, Germany
| | - Rene Tolba
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science and Experimental Surgery, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Michael J Jacobs
- European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Department of Vascular Surgery, Aachen, Germany; Department of Surgery, European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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17
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Prigent A, Chaumet-Riffaud P. Clinical problems in renovascular disease and the role of nuclear medicine. Semin Nucl Med 2014; 44:110-22. [PMID: 24484748 DOI: 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2013.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Although renovascular disease remains defined as a stenosis of the main renal artery or its proximal branches (renal artery stenosis [RAS]), its clinical overview has changed dramatically over the last 15-20 years and its management is more controversial than ever before. The clinical problems, not only diagnosis and treatment but also the relative contribution of different pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the progression of kidney disease, have shifted dramatically. This presentation aims to emphasize the paradigm change revisiting the (recent) past focused on renovascular hypertension (RVH) to the current context of preservation or recovery of threatened renal function in patients with progressive atherosclerotic renovascular disease until its last stage of irreversible "ischemic nephropathy." In the past, the foreground was occupied by RVH, a very rare disease, where the activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) was supposed to play the major, if not only, role in RVH issues. The retrospective RVH diagnosis was established either on the improvement or, more rarely, on the cure of hypertension after revascularization by, most often, a percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty with or without a stent placement. At this time, captoptril radionuclide renography was an efficient diagnostic tool, because it was a functional (angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition), noninvasive test aiming to evidence both the RAAS activation and the lateralization (or asymmetry) of renin secretion by the kidney affected by a "hemodynamically significant" RAS. At present, even if captoptril radionuclide renography could be looked upon as the most efficient (and cost effective in selected high-risk patients) noninvasive, functional test to predict the improvement of hypertension after RAS correction, its clinical usefulness is questioned as the randomized, prospective trials failed to demonstrate any significant benefits (either on blood pressure control or on renal function protection) of the revascularization over current antihypertensive therapy. Today many patients with RVH remain undetected for years because they are treated successfully and at low expense with these new blockers of RAAS. In addition to its well-known role in hemodynamics, angiotensin II promotes activations of profibrogenic and inflammatory factors and cells and stimulates reactive oxygen species generation. The "atherosclerotic milieu" itself plays a role in the loss of renal microvessels and defective angiogenesis. After an "adaptative" phase, ischemia eventually develops and induces hypoxia, the substratum of ischemic nephropathy. Because blood oxygen level-dependent MRI may provide an index of oxygen content in vivo, it may be useful to predict renal function outcome after percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty. New PET tracers, dedicated to assess RAAS receptors, inflammatory cell infiltrates, angiogenesis, and apoptose, would be tested in this context of atherosclerotic renovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Prigent
- Service de Biophysique et Médecine Nucléaire, AP-HP Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris-Sud Bicêtre, Paris, France.
| | - Philippe Chaumet-Riffaud
- Service de Biophysique et Médecine Nucléaire, AP-HP Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris-Sud Bicêtre, Paris, France; IR4M UMR8081 CNRS, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France
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18
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Blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) MRI analysis in atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2014; 22:519-24. [PMID: 23917027 DOI: 10.1097/mnh.0b013e32836400b2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Blood oxygen level-dependent MRI (BOLD MRI) is a noninvasive technique for evaluating kidney tissue oxygenation that requires no contrast exposure, with the potential to allow functional assessment in patients with atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis. Normal cortical-to-medulla oxygenation gradients are preserved in many patients treated for several years with medical antihypertensive therapy without restoring renal blood flow. The current review is of particular interest as new methods have been applied to the analyses of BOLD MRI, opening the perspective of its wider utilization in clinical practice. RECENT FINDINGS Recent findings show that more severe vascular compromise ultimately overwhelms renal adaptive changes, leading to overt cortical hypoxia and expansion of medullary hypoxic zones. 'Fractional kidney hypoxia' method of analysis, developed as an alternative method of BOLD MRI analysis, avoids the assumption of discrete cortical and medullary values and decreases the bias related to operator selection of regions of interests. SUMMARY We believe that thoughtful application and analysis of BOLD MRI can provide critical insights into changes in renal function prior to the onset of irreversible renal injury and may identify patients most likely to gain from measures to reverse or repair disorders of tissue oxygenation.
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19
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Evans RG, Harrop GK, Ngo JP, Ow CPC, O'Connor PM. Basal renal O2 consumption and the efficiency of O2 utilization for Na+ reabsorption. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2014; 306:F551-60. [PMID: 24431201 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00473.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined how the presence of a fixed level of basal renal O2 consumption (Vo2(basal); O2 used for processes independent of Na(+) transport) confounds the utility of the ratio of Na(+) reabsorption (TNa(+)) to total renal Vo2 (Vo2(total)) as an index of the efficiency of O2 utilization for TNa(+). We performed a systematic review and additional experiments in anesthetized rabbits to obtain the best possible estimate of the fractional contribution of Vo2(basal) to Vo2(total) under physiological conditions (basal percent renal Vo2). Estimates of basal percent renal Vo2 from 24 studies varied from 0% to 81.5%. Basal percent renal Vo2 varied with the fractional excretion of Na(+) (FENa(+)) in the 14 studies in which FENa(+) was measured under control conditions. Linear regression analysis predicted a basal percent renal Vo2 of 12.7-16.5% when FENa(+) = 1% (r(2) = 0.48, P = 0.001). Experimentally induced changes in TNa(+) altered TNa(+)/Vo2(total) in a manner consistent with theoretical predictions. We conclude that, because Vo2(basal) represents a significant proportion of Vo2(total), TNa(+)/Vo2(total) can change markedly when TNa(+) itself changes. Therefore, caution should be taken when TNa(+)/Vo2(total) is interpreted as a measure of the efficiency of O2 utilization for TNa(+), particularly under experimental conditions where TNa(+) or Vo2(total) changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger G Evans
- Dept. of Physiology, PO Box 13F, Monash Univ., Victoria 3800, Australia.
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20
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Pohlmann A, Cantow K, Hentschel J, Arakelyan K, Ladwig M, Flemming B, Hoff U, Persson PB, Seeliger E, Niendorf T. Linking non-invasive parametric MRI with invasive physiological measurements (MR-PHYSIOL): towards a hybrid and integrated approach for investigation of acute kidney injury in rats. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2013; 207:673-89. [PMID: 23336404 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Revised: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Acute kidney injury of various origins shares a common link in the pathophysiological chain of events: imbalance between renal medullary oxygen delivery and oxygen demand. For in vivo assessment of kidney haemodynamics and oxygenation in animals, quantitative but invasive physiological methods are established. A very limited number of studies attempted to link these invasive methods with parametric Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the kidney. Moreover, the validity of parametric MRI (pMRI) as a surrogate marker for renal tissue perfusion and renal oxygenation has not been systematically examined yet. For this reason, we set out to combine invasive techniques and non-invasive MRI in an integrated hybrid setup (MR-PHYSIOL) with the ultimate goal to calibrate, monitor and interpret parametric MR and physiological parameters by means of standardized interventions. Here we present a first report on the current status of this multi-modality approach. For this purpose, we first highlight key characteristics of renal perfusion and oxygenation. Second, concepts for in vivo characterization of renal perfusion and oxygenation are surveyed together with the capabilities of MRI for probing blood oxygenation-dependent tissue stages. Practical concerns evoked by the use of strong magnetic fields in MRI and interferences between MRI and invasive physiological probes are discussed. Technical solutions that balance the needs of in vivo physiological measurements together with the constraints dictated by small bore MR scanners are presented. An early implementation of the integrated MR-PHYSIOL approach is demonstrated including brief interventions of hypoxia and hyperoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Pohlmann
- Berlin Ultrahigh Field Facility (B.U.F.F.); Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine; Berlin; Germany
| | - K. Cantow
- Institute of Physiology; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin; Campus Mitte, and Center for Cardiovascular Research; Berlin; Germany
| | - J. Hentschel
- Berlin Ultrahigh Field Facility (B.U.F.F.); Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine; Berlin; Germany
| | | | - M. Ladwig
- Institute of Physiology; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin; Campus Mitte, and Center for Cardiovascular Research; Berlin; Germany
| | - B. Flemming
- Institute of Physiology; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin; Campus Mitte, and Center for Cardiovascular Research; Berlin; Germany
| | - U. Hoff
- Nephrology and Intensive Care Medicine; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin; Campus Virchow-Klinikum, and Center for Cardiovascular Research; Berlin; Germany
| | - P. B. Persson
- Institute of Physiology; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin; Campus Mitte, and Center for Cardiovascular Research; Berlin; Germany
| | - E. Seeliger
- Institute of Physiology; Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin; Campus Mitte, and Center for Cardiovascular Research; Berlin; Germany
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21
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Evans RG, Ince C, Joles JA, Smith DW, May CN, O'Connor PM, Gardiner BS. Haemodynamic influences on kidney oxygenation: Clinical implications of integrative physiology. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2013; 40:106-22. [DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.12031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Revised: 10/21/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Roger G Evans
- Department of Physiology; Monash University; Melbourne; Victoria; Australia
| | - Can Ince
- Department of Translational Physiology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam; The Netherlands
| | - Jaap A Joles
- Department of Nephrology and Hypertension; University Medical Center; Utrecht; The Netherlands
| | - David W Smith
- School of Computer Science and Software Engineering; The University of Western Australia; Perth; Western Australia; Australia
| | - Clive N May
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health; University of Melbourne; Melbourne; Victoria; Australia
| | - Paul M O'Connor
- Department of Physiology; Georgia Health Sciences University; Augusta; GA; USA
| | - Bruce S Gardiner
- School of Computer Science and Software Engineering; The University of Western Australia; Perth; Western Australia; Australia
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22
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Eppel GA, Head GA, Denton KM, Evans RG. Effects of tempol and candesartan on neural control of the kidney. Auton Neurosci 2012; 168:48-57. [PMID: 22336580 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2012.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2011] [Revised: 01/21/2012] [Accepted: 01/22/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We compared the effects of tempol (300 μmol kg(-1) plus 300 μmol kg(-1) h(-1), n=14) and candesartan (10 μg kg(-1) plus 10 μg kg(-1) h(-1), n=14) on renal haemodynamics, excretory function, and responses to electrical stimulation of the renal nerves (RNS) in lean and obese rabbits under pentobarbitone anaesthesia. Depressor responses to tempol (-16 ± 2 mmHg) and candesartan (-12 ± 1 mmHg) were similar. Candesartan, but not tempol, significantly increased basal renal blood flow (RBF; +36 ± 7%). Tempol, but not candesartan, significantly reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR; -30 ± 10%) and sodium excretion (U(Na)V; -44 ± 14%). RNS induced frequency-dependent reductions in RBF (-20 ± 3% at 1 Hz), GFR (-28 ± 6% at 1 Hz) and U(Na)V (-55 ± 6% at 1 Hz). Candesartan blunted these responses. Tempol did not significantly alter RBF and GFR responses to RNS but blunted the U(Na)V response. Responses to RNS, and the effects of tempol and candesartan, were similar in lean compared with obese rabbits. Unlike candesartan, tempol did not induce renal vasodilatation, maintain GFR and U(Na)V during reductions in arterial pressure, or blunt neurally-mediated vasoconstriction. In conclusion, unlike the AT(1)-receptor antagonist candesartan, tempol does not blunt the effects of RNS on renal haemodynamic function. Furthermore, under the current experimental conditions superoxide appears to make little contribution to the actions of endogenous angiotensin II on baseline renal haemodynamics or excretory function, or their responses to RNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela A Eppel
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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23
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Gloviczki ML, Lerman LO, Textor SC. Blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) MRI in renovascular hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep 2012; 13:370-7. [PMID: 21833688 DOI: 10.1007/s11906-011-0218-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Establishing whether large vessel occlusive disease threatens tissue oxygenation and viability in the post-stenotic kidney is difficult for clinicians. Development of blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) MRI methods can allow functional evaluation of regional differences in deoxyhemoglobin levels within the kidney without requiring contrast. The complex renal circulation normally provides a gradient of oxygenation from a highly vascular cortex to much reduced levels in the deep sections of medulla, dependent upon adjustments in renal afferent arterioles, oxygen consumption related to solute transport, and arteriovenous shunting related to the juxtaposition of descending and ascending vasa recta. Studies with BOLD imaging have identified adaptation to substantial reductions in renal blood flow, volume, and glomerular filtration rate in post-stenotic kidneys that preserves medullary and cortical oxygenation during medical therapy. However, extreme vascular compromise overwhelms these adaptive changes and leads to cortical hypoxia and microvascular injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika L Gloviczki
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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Palm F, Nordquist L. Renal tubulointerstitial hypoxia: cause and consequence of kidney dysfunction. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2011; 38:474-80. [PMID: 21545630 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2011.05532.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
1. Intrarenal oxygen availability is the balance between supply, mainly dependent on renal blood flow, and demand, determined by the basal metabolic demand and the energy-requiring tubular electrolyte transport. Renal blood flow is maintained within close limits in order to sustain stable glomerular filtration, so increased intrarenal oxygen consumption is likely to cause tissue hypoxia. 2. The increased oxygen consumption is closely linked to increased oxidative stress, which increases mitochondrial oxygen usage and reduces tubular electrolyte transport efficiency, with both contributing to increased total oxygen consumption. 3. Tubulointerstitial hypoxia stimulates the production of collagen I and α-smooth muscle actin, indicators of increased fibrogenesis. Furthermore, the hypoxic environment induces epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation and aggravates fibrosis, which results in reduced peritubular blood perfusion and oxygen delivery due to capillary rarefaction. 4. Increased oxygen consumption, capillary rarefaction and increased diffusion distance due to the increased fibrosis per se further aggravate the interstitial hypoxia. 5. Recently, it has been demonstrated that hypoxia simulates the infiltration and maturation of immune cells, which provides an explanation for the general inflammation commonly associated with the progression of chronic kidney disease. 6. Therapies targeting interstitial hypoxia could potentially reduce the progression of chronic renal failure in millions of patients who are otherwise likely to eventually present with fully developed end-stage renal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrik Palm
- Department of Medical Cell Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
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25
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Gloviczki ML, Glockner JF, Crane JA, McKusick MA, Misra S, Grande JP, Lerman LO, Textor SC. Blood oxygen level-dependent magnetic resonance imaging identifies cortical hypoxia in severe renovascular disease. Hypertension 2011; 58:1066-72. [PMID: 22042812 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.111.171405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis has a range of manifestations depending on the severity of vascular occlusion. The aim of this study was to examine whether exceeding the limits of adaptation to reduced blood flow ultimately leads to tissue hypoxia, as determined by blood oxygen level dependent MRI. We compared 3 groups of hypertensive patients, 24 with essential hypertension, 13 with "moderate" (Doppler velocities 200-384 cm/s), and 17 with "severe" atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis (ARAS; velocities >384 cm/s and loss of functional renal tissue). Cortical and medullary blood flows and volumes were determined by multidetector computed tomography. Poststenotic kidney size and blood flow were reduced with ARAS, and tissue perfusion fell in the most severe lesions. Tissue medullary deoxyhemoglobin, as reflected by R2* values, was higher as compared with the cortex for all of the groups and did not differ between subjects with renal artery lesions and essential hypertension. By contrast, cortical R2* levels were elevated for severe ARAS (21.6±9.4 per second) as compared with either essential hypertension (17.8±2.3 per second; P<0.01) or moderate ARAS (15.7±2.1 per second; P<0.01). Changes in medullary R2* after furosemide administration tended to be blunted in severe ARAS as compared with unaffected (contralateral) kidneys. These results demonstrate that severe vascular occlusion overwhelms the capacity of the kidney to adapt to reduced blood flow, manifest as overt cortical hypoxia as measured by blood oxygen level-dependent MRI. The level of cortical hypoxia is out of proportion to the medulla and may provide a marker to identify irreversible parenchymal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika L Gloviczki
- Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
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26
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Evans RG, Goddard D, Eppel GA, O'Connor PM. Stability of tissue PO2 in the face of altered perfusion: a phenomenon specific to the renal cortex and independent of resting renal oxygen consumption. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2011; 38:247-54. [PMID: 21306412 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2011.05494.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
1. Oxygen tension (PO(2)) in renal cortical tissue can remain relatively constant when renal blood flow changes in the physiological range, even when changes in renal oxygen delivery (DO(2)) and oxygen consumption (VO(2)) are mismatched. In the current study, we examined whether this also occurs in the renal medulla and skeletal muscle, or if it is an unusual property of the renal cortex. We also examined the potential for dysfunction of the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon to contribute to kidney hypoxia in disease states associated with increased renal VO(2) . 2. In both the kidney and hindlimb of pentobarbitone anaesthetized rabbits, whole organ blood flow was reduced by intra-arterial infusion of angiotensin-II and increased by acetylcholine infusion. In the kidney, this was carried out before and during renal arterial infusion of the mitochondrial uncoupler, 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP), or its vehicle. 3. Angiotensin-II reduced renal (-34%) and hindlimb (-25%) DO(2) , whereas acetylcholine increased renal (+38%) and hindlimb (+66%) DO(2) . However, neither renal nor hindlimb VO(2) were altered. Tissue PO(2) varied with local perfusion in the renal medulla and biceps femoris, but not the renal cortex. DNP increased renal VO(2) (+38%) and reduced cortical tissue PO(2) (-44%), but both still remained stable during subsequent infusion of angiotensin-II and acetylcholine. 4. We conclude that maintenance of tissue PO(2) in the face of mismatched changes in local perfusion and VO(2) is an unusual property of the renal cortex. The underlying mechanisms remain unknown, but our current findings suggest they are not compromised when resting renal VO(2) is increased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger G Evans
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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Xu TB, Eppel GA, Head GA, Evans RG. Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptors and Systemic Hemodynamic and Renal Responses to Stress and Altered Blood Volume in Conscious Rabbits. Front Physiol 2011; 2:40. [PMID: 21811470 PMCID: PMC3141355 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2011.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2011] [Accepted: 07/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined how systemic blockade of type 1 angiotensin (AT(1)-) receptors affects reflex control of the circulation and the kidney. In conscious rabbits, the effects of candesartan on responses of systemic and renal hemodynamics and renal excretory function to acute hypoxia, mild hemorrhage, and plasma volume expansion were tested. Candesartan reduced resting mean arterial pressure (MAP, -8 ± 2%) without significantly altering cardiac output (CO), increased renal blood flow (RBF, +38 ± 9%) and reduced renal vascular resistance (RVR, -32 ± 6%). Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) was not significantly altered but sodium excretion (U(Na+)V) increased fourfold. After vehicle treatment, hypoxia (10% inspired O(2) for 30 min) did not significantly alter MAP or CO, but reduced heart rate (HR, -17 ± 6%), increased RVR (+33 ± 16%) and reduced GFR (-46 ± 16%) and U(Na+)V (-41 ± 17%). Candesartan did not significantly alter these responses. After vehicle treatment, plasma volume expansion increased CO (+35 ± 7%), reduced total peripheral resistance (TPR, -26 ± 5%), increased RBF (+62 ± 23%) and reduced RVR (-32 ± 9%), but did not significantly alter MAP or HR. It also increased U(Na+)V (803 ± 184%) yet reduced GFR (-47 ± 9%). Candesartan did not significantly alter these responses. After vehicle treatment, mild hemorrhage did not significantly alter MAP but increased HR (+16 ± 3%), reduced CO (-16 ± 4%) and RBF (-18 ± 6%), increased TPR (+18 ± 4%) and tended to increase RVR (+18 ± 9%, P = 0.1), but had little effect on GFR or U(Na+)V. But after candesartan treatment MAP fell during hemorrhage (-19 ± 1%), while neither TPR nor RVR increased, and GFR (-64 ± 18%) and U(Na+)V (-83 ± 10%) fell. AT(1)-receptor activation supports MAP and GFR during hypovolemia. But AT(1)-receptors appear to play little role in the renal vasoconstriction, hypofiltration, and antinatriuresis accompanying hypoxia, or the systemic and renal vasodilatation and natriuresis accompanying plasma volume expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony B Xu
- Department of Physiology, Monash University Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Fenhammar J, Andersson A, Forestier J, Weitzberg E, Sollevi A, Hjelmqvist H, Frithiof R. Endothelin receptor A antagonism attenuates renal medullary blood flow impairment in endotoxemic pigs. PLoS One 2011; 6:e21534. [PMID: 21760895 PMCID: PMC3132177 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2011] [Accepted: 05/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Endothelin-1 is a potent endogenous vasoconstrictor that contributes to renal microcirculatory impairment during endotoxemia and sepsis. Here we investigated if the renal circulatory and metabolic effects of endothelin during endotoxemia are mediated through activation of endothelin-A receptors. Methods and Findings A randomized experimental study was performed with anesthetized and mechanically ventilated pigs subjected to Escherichia coli endotoxin infusion for five hours. After two hours the animals were treated with the selective endothelin receptor type A antagonist TBC 3711 (2 mg⋅kg−1, n = 8) or served as endotoxin-treated controls (n = 8). Renal artery blood flow, diuresis and creatinine clearance decreased in response to endotoxemia. Perfusion in the cortex, as measured by laser doppler flowmetry, was reduced in both groups, but TBC 3711 attenuated the decrease in the medulla (p = 0.002). Compared to control, TBC 3711 reduced renal oxygen extraction as well as cortical and medullary lactate/pyruvate ratios (p<0.05) measured by microdialysis. Furthermore, TBC 3711 attenuated the decline in renal cortical interstitial glucose levels (p = 0.02) and increased medullary pyruvate levels (p = 0.03). Decreased creatinine clearance and oliguria were present in both groups without any significant difference. Conclusions These results suggest that endothelin released during endotoxemia acts via endothelin A receptors to impair renal medullary blood flow causing ischemia. Reduced renal oxygen extraction and cortical levels of lactate by TBC 3711, without effects on cortical blood flow, further suggest additional metabolic effects of endothelin type A receptor activation in this model of endotoxin induced acute kidney injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Fenhammar
- Department of Anaesthesiology & Intensive Care, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Gardiner BS, Smith DW, O'Connor PM, Evans RG. A mathematical model of diffusional shunting of oxygen from arteries to veins in the kidney. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2011; 300:F1339-52. [DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00544.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand how arterial-to-venous (AV) oxygen shunting influences kidney oxygenation, a mathematical model of oxygen transport in the renal cortex was created. The model consists of a multiscale hierarchy of 11 countercurrent systems representing the various branch levels of the cortical vasculature. At each level, equations describing the reactive-advection-diffusion of oxygen are solved. Factors critical in renal oxygen transport incorporated into the model include the parallel geometry of arteries and veins and their respective sizes, variation in blood velocity in each vessel, oxygen transport (along the vessels, between the vessels and between vessel and parenchyma), nonlinear binding of oxygen to hemoglobin, and the consumption of oxygen by renal tissue. The model is calibrated using published measurements of cortical vascular geometry and microvascular Po2. The model predicts that AV oxygen shunting is quantitatively significant and estimates how much kidney V̇o2 must change, in the face of altered renal blood flow, to maintain cortical tissue Po2 at a stable level. It is demonstrated that oxygen shunting increases as renal V̇o2 or arterial Po2 increases. Oxygen shunting also increases as renal blood flow is reduced within the physiological range or during mild hemodilution. In severe ischemia or anemia, or when kidney V̇o2 increases, AV oxygen shunting in proximal vascular elements may reduce the oxygen content of blood destined for the medullary circulation, thereby exacerbating the development of tissue hypoxia. That is, cortical ischemia could cause medullary hypoxia even when medullary perfusion is maintained. Cortical AV oxygen shunting limits the change in oxygen delivery to cortical tissue and stabilizes tissue Po2 when arterial Po2 changes, but renders the cortex and perhaps also the medulla susceptible to hypoxia when oxygen delivery falls or consumption increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce S. Gardiner
- School of Computer Science and Software Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Perth
| | - David W. Smith
- School of Computer Science and Software Engineering, The University of Western Australia, Perth
| | - Paul M. O'Connor
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and
| | - Roger G. Evans
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Evans RG, Goddard D, Eppel GA, O'Connor PM. Factors that render the kidney susceptible to tissue hypoxia in hypoxemia. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2011; 300:R931-40. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00552.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To better understand what makes the kidney susceptible to tissue hypoxia, we compared, in the rabbit kidney and hindlimb, the ability of feedback mechanisms governing oxygen consumption (V̇o2) and oxygen delivery (Do2) to attenuate tissue hypoxia during hypoxemia. In the kidney (cortex and medulla) and hindlimb (biceps femoris muscle), we determined responses of whole organ blood flow and V̇o2, and local perfusion and tissue Po2, to reductions in Do2 mediated by graded systemic hypoxemia. Progressive hypoxemia reduced tissue Po2 similarly in the renal cortex, renal medulla, and biceps femoris. Falls in tissue Po2 could be detected when arterial oxygen content was reduced by as little as 4–8%. V̇o2 remained stable during progressive hypoxemia, only tending to fall once arterial oxygen content was reduced by 55% for the kidney or 42% for the hindlimb. Even then, the fall in renal V̇o2 could be accounted for by reduced oxygen demand for sodium transport rather than limited oxygen availability. Hindlimb blood flow and local biceps femoris perfusion increased progressively during graded hypoxia. In contrast, neither total renal blood flow nor cortical or medullary perfusion was altered by hypoxemia. Our data suggest that the absence in the kidney of hyperemic responses to hypoxia, and the insensitivity of renal V̇o2 to limited oxygen availability, contribute to kidney hypoxia during hypoxemia. The susceptibility of the kidney to tissue hypoxia, even in relatively mild hypoxemia, may have important implications for the progression of kidney disease, particularly in patients at high altitude or with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger G. Evans
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Duncan Goddard
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Gabriela A. Eppel
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; and
| | - Paul M. O'Connor
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
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Issues in renovascular disease and ischemic nephropathy: beyond ASTRAL. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2011; 20:139-45. [DOI: 10.1097/mnh.0b013e328342bb35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is characterized by irreversible pathological processes that result in the development of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Accumulating evidence has emphasized the important role of chronic hypoxia in the tubulointerstitium in the final common pathway that leads to development of ESRD. The causes of chronic hypoxia in the tubulointerstitium are multifactorial and include mechanisms such as hemodynamic changes and disturbed oxygen metabolism of resident kidney cells. Epidemiological studies have revealed an association between CKD and systemically hypoxic conditions, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and sleep apnea syndrome. In addition to tubulointerstitial hypoxia, glomerular hypoxia can occur and is a crucial factor in the development of glomerular disorders. Chemical compounds, polarographic sensors, and radiographical methods can be used to detect hypoxia. Therapeutic approaches that target chronic hypoxia in the kidney should be effective against a broad range of kidney diseases. Amelioration of hypoxia is one mechanism of inhibiting the renin-angiotensin system, the current gold standard of CKD therapy. Future therapeutic approaches include protection of the vascular endothelium and appropriate activation of hypoxia-inducible factor, a key transcription factor involved in adaptive responses against hypoxia.
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O'Connor PM, Evans RG. Structural antioxidant defense mechanisms in the mammalian and nonmammalian kidney: different solutions to the same problem? Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2010; 299:R723-7. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00364.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Tissue oxygen levels are tightly regulated in all organs. This poses a challenge for the kidney, as its function requires blood flow, and thus, oxygen delivery to greatly exceed its metabolic requirements. Because superoxide production in the kidney is dependent on oxygen availability, tissue hyperoxia could drive oxidative stress. In the mammalian renal cortex, this problem may have been solved, in part, through a structural antioxidant defense mechanism. That is, arteries and veins are closely associated in a countercurrent arrangement, facilitating diffusional arterial-to-venous (AV) oxygen shunting. Because of this mechanism, a proportion of the oxygen delivered in the renal artery never reaches kidney tissue but instead diffuses to the closely associated renal veins, thus limiting oxygen transport to tissue. In the nonmammalian kidney, arteries and veins are not arranged in an intimate countercurrent fashion as in mammals; thus AV oxygen shunting is likely less important in regulation of kidney oxygenation in these species. Instead, the kidney's blood supply is predominately of venous origin. This likely has a similar impact on tissue oxygenation as AV oxygen shunting, of limiting delivery of oxygen to renal tissue. Thus, we hypothesize the evolution of structural antioxidant mechanisms that are anatomically divergent but functionally homologous in the mammalian and nonmammalian kidney.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M. O'Connor
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; and
| | - Roger G. Evans
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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