1
|
Identification of Novel mRNA Isoforms Associated with Acute Heat Stress Response Using RNA Sequencing Data in Sprague Dawley Rats. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11121740. [PMID: 36552250 PMCID: PMC9774719 DOI: 10.3390/biology11121740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms underlying heat stress tolerance in animals to high temperatures remain unclear. This study identified the differentially expressed mRNA isoforms which narrowed down the most reliable DEG markers and molecular pathways that underlie the mechanisms of thermoregulation. This experiment was performed on Sprague Dawley rats housed at 22 °C (control group; CT), and three acute heat-stressed groups housed at 42 °C for 30 min (H30), 60 min (H60), and 120 min (H120). Earlier, we demonstrated that acute heat stress increased the rectal temperature of rats, caused abnormal changes in the blood biochemical parameters, as well as induced dramatic changes in the expression levels of genes through epigenetics and post-transcriptional regulation. Transcriptomic analysis using RNA-Sequencing (RNA-Seq) data obtained previously from blood (CT and H120), liver (CT, H30, H60, and H120), and adrenal glands (CT, H30, H60, and H120) was performed. The differentially expressed mRNA isoforms (DEIs) were identified and annotated by the CLC Genomics Workbench. Biological process and metabolic pathway analyses were performed using Gene Ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database. A total of 225, 5764, and 4988 DEIs in the blood, liver, and adrenal glands were observed. Furthermore, the number of novel differentially expressed transcript lengths with annotated genes and novel differentially expressed transcript with non-annotated genes were 136 and 8 in blood, 3549 and 120 in the liver, as well as 3078 and 220 in adrenal glands, respectively. About 35 genes were involved in the heat stress response, out of which, Dnaja1, LOC680121, Chordc1, AABR07011951.1, Hsp90aa1, Hspa1b, Cdkn1a, Hmox1, Bag3, and Dnaja4 were commonly identified in the liver and adrenal glands, suggesting that these genes may regulate heat stress response through interactions between the liver and adrenal glands. In conclusion, this study would enhance our understanding of the complex underlying mechanisms of acute heat stress, and the identified mRNA isoforms and genes can be used as potential candidates for thermotolerance selection in mammals.
Collapse
|
2
|
Dou J, Luo H, Sammad A, Lou W, Wang D, Schenkel F, Yu Y, Fang L, Wang Y. Epigenomics of rats' liver and its cross-species functional annotation reveals key regulatory genes underlying short term heat-stress response. Genomics 2022; 114:110449. [PMID: 35985612 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2022.110449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Molecular responses to heat stress are multifaceted and under a complex cellular post-transcriptional control. This study explores the epigenetic and transcriptional alterations induced by heat stress (42 °C for 120 min) in the liver of rats, by integrating ATAC-seq, RNA-Seq, and WGBS information. Out of 2586 differential ATAC-seq peaks induced by heat stress, 36 up-regulated and 22 down-regulated transcript factors (TFs) are predicted, such as Cebpα, Foxa2, Foxo4, Nfya and Sp3. Furthermore, 150,189 differentially methylated regions represent 2571 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). By integrating all data, 45 DEGs are concluded as potential heat stress response markers in rats. To comprehensively annotate and narrow down predicted markers, they are integrated with GWAS results of heat stress parameters in cows, and PheWAS data in humans. Besides better understanding of heat stress responses in mammals, INSR, MAPK8, RHPN2 and BTBD7 are proposed as candidate markers for heat stress in mammals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinhuan Dou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Beijing Engineering Technology Research Center of Raw Milk Quality and Safety Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Hanpeng Luo
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Beijing Engineering Technology Research Center of Raw Milk Quality and Safety Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Abdul Sammad
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Beijing Engineering Technology Research Center of Raw Milk Quality and Safety Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wenqi Lou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Beijing Engineering Technology Research Center of Raw Milk Quality and Safety Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Di Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Beijing Engineering Technology Research Center of Raw Milk Quality and Safety Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Flavio Schenkel
- Centre for Genetic Improvement of Livestock, Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, N1G 2W1 Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ying Yu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Beijing Engineering Technology Research Center of Raw Milk Quality and Safety Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Lingzhao Fang
- MRC Human Genetics Unit at the Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, United Kingdom.
| | - Yachun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Beijing Engineering Technology Research Center of Raw Milk Quality and Safety Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Huang S, Dou J, Li Z, Hu L, Yu Y, Wang Y. Analysis of Genomic Alternative Splicing Patterns in Rat under Heat Stress Based on RNA-Seq Data. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13020358. [PMID: 35205403 PMCID: PMC8871965 DOI: 10.3390/genes13020358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Heat stress is one of the most severe challenges faced in livestock production in summer. Alternative splicing as an important post-transcriptional regulation is rarely studied in heat-stressed animals. Here, we performed and analyzed RNA-sequencing assays on the liver of Sprague-Dawley rats in control (22 °C, n = 5) and heat stress (4 °C for 120 min, H120; n = 5) groups, resulting in the identification of 636 differentially expressed genes. Identification analysis of the alternative splicing events revealed that heat stress-induced alternative splicing events increased by 20.18%. Compared with other types of alternative splicing events, the alternative start increased the most (43.40%) after heat stress. Twenty-eight genes were differentially alternatively spliced (DAS) between the control and H120 groups, among which Acly, Hnrnpd and mir3064 were also differentially expressed. For DAS genes, Srebf1, Shc1, Srsf5 and Ensa were associated with insulin, while Cast, Srebf1, Tmem33, Tor1aip2, Slc39a7 and Sqstm1 were enriched in the composition of the endoplasmic reticulum. In summary, our study conducts a comprehensive profile of alternative splicing in heat-stressed rats, indicating that alternative splicing is one of the molecular mechanisms of heat stress response in mammals and providing reference data for research on heat tolerance in mammalian livestock.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shangzhen Huang
- National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.H.); (L.H.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Jinhuan Dou
- Animal Science and Technology College, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 100193, China
- Correspondence: (J.D.); (Y.W.)
| | - Zhongshu Li
- Agricultural College, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China;
| | - Lirong Hu
- National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.H.); (L.H.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Ying Yu
- National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.H.); (L.H.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Yachun Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory of Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (S.H.); (L.H.); (Y.Y.)
- Correspondence: (J.D.); (Y.W.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Unnikrishnan G, Hatwar R, Hornby S, Laxminarayan S, Gulati T, Belval LN, Giersch GEW, Kazman JB, Casa DJ, Reifman J. A 3-D virtual human thermoregulatory model to predict whole-body and organ-specific heat-stress responses. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:2543-2562. [PMID: 34089370 PMCID: PMC8357720 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04698-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Objective This study aimed at assessing the risks associated with human exposure to heat-stress conditions by predicting organ- and tissue-level heat-stress responses under different exertional activities, environmental conditions, and clothing. Methods In this study, we developed an anatomically detailed three-dimensional thermoregulatory finite element model of a 50th percentile U.S. male, to predict the spatiotemporal temperature distribution throughout the body. The model accounts for the major heat transfer and thermoregulatory mechanisms, and circadian-rhythm effects. We validated our model by comparing its temperature predictions of various organs (brain, liver, stomach, bladder, and esophagus), and muscles (vastus medialis and triceps brachii) under normal resting conditions (errors between 0.0 and 0.5 °C), and of rectum under different heat-stress conditions (errors between 0.1 and 0.3 °C), with experimental measurements from multiple studies. Results Our simulations showed that the rise in the rectal temperature was primarily driven by the activity level (~ 94%) and, to a much lesser extent, environmental conditions or clothing considered in our study. The peak temperature in the heart, liver, and kidney were consistently higher than in the rectum (by ~ 0.6 °C), and the entire heart and liver recorded higher temperatures than in the rectum, indicating that these organs may be more susceptible to heat injury. Conclusion Our model can help assess the impact of exertional and environmental heat stressors at the organ level and, in the future, evaluate the efficacy of different whole-body or localized cooling strategies in preserving organ integrity. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00421-021-04698-1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ginu Unnikrishnan
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, FCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702-5012, USA
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA
| | - Rajeev Hatwar
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, FCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702-5012, USA
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA
| | - Samantha Hornby
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, FCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702-5012, USA
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA
| | - Srinivas Laxminarayan
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, FCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702-5012, USA
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA
| | - Tushar Gulati
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, FCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702-5012, USA
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA
| | - Luke N Belval
- Korey Stringer Institute, University of Connecticut, 2095 Hillside Road U-1110, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Gabrielle E W Giersch
- Korey Stringer Institute, University of Connecticut, 2095 Hillside Road U-1110, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Josh B Kazman
- Consortium for Health and Military Performance, Department of Military and Emergency Medicine, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| | - Douglas J Casa
- Korey Stringer Institute, University of Connecticut, 2095 Hillside Road U-1110, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Jaques Reifman
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, FCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702-5012, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hirata A, Kodera S, Sasaki K, Gomez-Tames J, Laakso I, Wood A, Watanabe S, Foster KR. Human exposure to radiofrequency energy above 6 GHz: review of computational dosimetry studies. Phys Med Biol 2021; 66. [PMID: 33761473 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6560/abf1b7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
International guidelines/standards for human protection from electromagnetic fields have been revised recently, especially for frequencies above 6 GHz where new wireless communication systems have been deployed. Above this frequency a new physical quantity 'absorbed/epithelial power density' has been adopted as a dose metric. Then, the permissible level of external field strength/power density is derived for practical assessment. In addition, a new physical quantity, fluence or absorbed energy density, is introduced for protection from brief pulses (especially for shorter than 10 s). These limits were explicitly designed to avoid excessive increases in tissue temperature, based on electromagnetic and thermal modeling studies but supported by experimental data where available. This paper reviews the studies on the computational modeling/dosimetry which are related to the revision of the guidelines/standards. The comparisons with experimental data as well as an analytic solution are also been presented. Future research needs and additional comments on the revision will also be mentioned.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akimasa Hirata
- Dept. of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya, Japan.,Center of Biomedical Physics and Information Technology, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya Japan
| | - Sachiko Kodera
- Dept. of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kensuke Sasaki
- National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jose Gomez-Tames
- Dept. of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya, Japan.,Center of Biomedical Physics and Information Technology, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Nagoya Japan
| | - Ilkka Laakso
- Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Andrew Wood
- Swinburne University of Technology Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Soichi Watanabe
- National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kenneth R Foster
- University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Unnikrishnan G, Mao H, Sajja VSSS, van Albert S, Sundaramurthy A, Rubio JE, Subramaniam DR, Long J, Reifman J. Animal Orientation Affects Brain Biomechanical Responses to Blast-Wave Exposure. J Biomech Eng 2021; 143:1096850. [PMID: 33493319 DOI: 10.1115/1.4049889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated how animal orientation within a shock tube influences the biomechanical responses of the brain and cerebral vasculature of a rat when exposed to a blast wave. Using three-dimensional finite element (FE) models, we computed the biomechanical responses when the rat was exposed to the same blast-wave overpressure (100 kPa) in a prone (P), vertical (V), or head-only (HO) orientation. We validated our model by comparing the model-predicted and the experimentally measured brain pressures at the lateral ventricle. For all three orientations, the maximum difference between the predicted and measured pressures was 11%. Animal orientation markedly influenced the predicted peak pressure at the anterior position along the midsagittal plane of the brain (P = 187 kPa; V = 119 kPa; and HO = 142 kPa). However, the relative differences in the predicted peak pressure between the orientations decreased at the medial (21%) and posterior (7%) positions. In contrast to the pressure, the peak strain in the prone orientation relative to the other orientations at the anterior, medial, and posterior positions was 40-88% lower. Similarly, at these positions, the cerebral vasculature strain in the prone orientation was lower than the strain in the other orientations. These results show that animal orientation in a shock tube influences the biomechanical responses of the brain and the cerebral vasculature of the rat, strongly suggesting that a direct comparison of changes in brain tissue observed from animals exposed at different orientations can lead to incorrect conclusions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ginu Unnikrishnan
- Department of Defense, Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, Fort Detrick, MD 21702; The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD 20817
| | - Haojie Mao
- Department of Defense, Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, Fort Detrick, MD 21702; The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD 20817
| | - Venkata Siva Sai Sujith Sajja
- Blast Induced Neurotrauma Division, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Drive, Silver Spring, MD 20910
| | - Stephen van Albert
- Blast Induced Neurotrauma Division, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Drive, Silver Spring, MD 20910
| | - Aravind Sundaramurthy
- Department of Defense, Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, Fort Detrick, MD 21702; The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD 20817
| | - Jose E Rubio
- Department of Defense, Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, Fort Detrick, MD 21702; The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD 20817
| | - Dhananjay Radhakrishnan Subramaniam
- Department of Defense, Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, Fort Detrick, MD 21702; The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD 20817
| | - Joseph Long
- Blast Induced Neurotrauma Division, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Drive, Silver Spring, MD 20910
| | - Jaques Reifman
- Department of Defense, Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Development Command, Fort Detrick, MD 21702
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Chen Y, Yu T. Mouse liver is more resistant than skeletal muscle to heat-induced apoptosis. Cell Stress Chaperones 2021; 26:275-281. [PMID: 32880059 PMCID: PMC7736438 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-020-01163-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
During passive heat stress, shifting of blood flow from the hepato-splanchnic to peripheral regions produces less favorable physiological conditions in the liver than in the skeletal muscle. We were wondering if the two organs differ in susceptibility to heat injury and thus examined the effects of heat shock exposure on apoptotic and heat stress-related markers in the gastrocnemius muscle and liver of mice. During heat exposure, mice had a peak core body temperature of 41.1 ± 0.7 °C. Heat-exposed mice showed higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), cleaved caspases, fragmented DNA, and Drp1 protein expression in the gastrocnemius muscles than control mice. These changes were not observed in the livers of heat-exposed mice. Furthermore, the levels of glucocorticoid receptor, HSP70, and HSF1 proteins were significantly elevated in the gastrocnemius muscles of heat-exposed mice compared with that of control mice. The livers of heat-exposed mice also revealed increased expression of HSP70 but no changes in the other proteins. These results demonstrate that heat exposure induces significantly lower levels of the stress response and apoptosis in the liver than in the skeletal muscle of mice. The liver tissue resistance against heat stress is associated with low levels of heat-induced ROS production and mitochondrial fission protein expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Chen
- Department of Military and Emergency Medicine, Hébert School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA.
| | - Tianzheng Yu
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Bethesda, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Unnikrishnan G, Mao H, Sundaramurthy A, Bell ED, Yeoh S, Monson K, Reifman J. A 3-D Rat Brain Model for Blast-Wave Exposure: Effects of Brain Vasculature and Material Properties. Ann Biomed Eng 2019; 47:2033-2044. [PMID: 31054004 PMCID: PMC6757019 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-019-02277-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to blast waves is suspected to cause primary traumatic brain injury. However, existing finite-element (FE) models of the rat head lack the necessary fidelity to characterize the biomechanical responses in the brain due to blast exposure. They neglect to represent the cerebral vasculature, which increases brain stiffness, and lack the appropriate brain material properties characteristic of high strain rates observed in blast exposures. To address these limitations, we developed a high-fidelity three-dimensional FE model of a rat head. We explicitly represented the rat’s cerebral vasculature and used high-strain-rate material properties of the rat brain. For a range of blast overpressures (100 to 230 kPa) the brain-pressure predictions matched experimental results and largely overlapped with and tracked the incident pressure–time profile. Incorporating the vasculature decreased the average peak strain in the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem by 17, 33, and 18%, respectively. When compared with our model based on rat-brain properties, the use of human-brain properties in the FE model led to a three-fold reduction in the strain predictions. For simulations of blast exposure in rats, our findings suggest that representing cerebral vasculature and species-specific brain properties has a considerable influence in the resulting brain strain but not the pressure predictions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ginu Unnikrishnan
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, MCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, USA
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc (HJF), 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA
| | - Haojie Mao
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, MCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, USA
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc (HJF), 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA
| | - Aravind Sundaramurthy
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, MCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, USA
- The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc (HJF), 6720A Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20817, USA
| | - E David Bell
- Department of Bioengineering, The University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Stewart Yeoh
- Department of Bioengineering, The University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Kenneth Monson
- Department of Bioengineering, The University of Utah, 36 S. Wasatch Drive, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Utah, 1495 E 100 S (1550 MEK), Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Jaques Reifman
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, MCMR-TT, 504 Scott Street, Fort Detrick, MD, 21702, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Permenter MG, McDyre BC, Ippolito DL, Stallings JD. Alterations in tissue microRNA after heat stress in the conscious rat: potential biomarkers of organ-specific injury. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:141. [PMID: 30770735 PMCID: PMC6377737 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5515-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heat illness remains a significant cause of morbidity in susceptible populations. Recent research elucidating the cellular mechanism of heat stress leading to heat illness may provide information to develop better therapeutic interventions, risk assessment strategies, and early biomarkers of organ damage. microRNA (miRNA) are promising candidates for therapeutic targets and biomarkers for a variety of clinical conditions since there is the potential for high specificity for individual tissues and unique cellular functions. The objective of this study was to identify differentially expressed microRNAs and their putative mRNA targets in the heart, liver, kidney, and lung in rats at three time points: during heat stress (i.e., when core temperature reached 41.8 °C), or following a 24 or 48 h recovery period. RESULTS Rats did not show histological evidence of tissue pathology until 48 h after heat stress, with 3 out of 6 rats showing cardiac inflammation and renal proteinosis at 48 h. The three rats with cardiac and renal pathology had 86, 7, 159, and 37 differentially expressed miRNA in the heart, liver, kidney, or lung, respectively compared to non-heat stressed control animals. During heat stress one differentially expressed miRNA was found in the liver and five in the lung, with no other modulated miRNA after 24 h or 48 h in animals with no evidence of organ injury. Pathway enrichment analysis revealed enrichment in functional pathways associated with heat stress, with the greatest effects observed in animals with histological evidence of cardiac and renal damage at 48 h. Inhibiting miR-21 in cultured cardiomyocytes increased the percent apoptotic cells five hours after heat stress from 70.9 ± 0.8 to 84.8 ± 2.2%. CONCLUSIONS Global microRNA and transcriptomics analysis suggested that perturbed miRNA due to heat stress are involved in biological pathways related to organ injury, energy metabolism, the unfolded protein response, and cellular signaling. These miRNA may serve as biomarkers of organ injury and potential pharmacological targets for preventing heat illness or organ injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew G. Permenter
- Excet, Inc., Fort Detrick, MD 21702-5010 USA
- U.S. Army Center for Environmental Health Research, Fort Detrick, Maryland, MD 21702-5010 USA
| | - Bonna C. McDyre
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Fort Detrick, MD 21702-5010 USA
- U.S. Army Center for Environmental Health Research, Fort Detrick, Maryland, MD 21702-5010 USA
| | - Danielle L. Ippolito
- U.S. Army Center for Environmental Health Research, Fort Detrick, Maryland, MD 21702-5010 USA
| | - Jonathan D. Stallings
- U.S. Army Center for Environmental Health Research, Fort Detrick, Maryland, MD 21702-5010 USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Dou J, Montanholi YR, Wang Z, Li Z, Yu Y, Martell JE, Wang YJ, Wang Y. Corticosterone tissue-specific response in Sprague Dawley rats under acute heat stress. J Therm Biol 2019; 81:12-19. [PMID: 30975409 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Our study evaluated the physiological responses to acute heat stress in rats via body temperature and tissue corticosterone levels, and investigated the relative tissue response to heat stress based on corticosterone. Body temperature of rats under 22 °C (control) and 42 °C for 30 (H30), 60 (H60) and 120 min (H120) was measured. Correspondingly, corticosterone was analyzed in 11 tissues (adrenal, brain, heart, kidney, liver, lung, leg muscle, blood, stomach, spleen and small intestine). Analysis of variance and correlations were conducted on body temperature and corticosterone levels. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyzed the thermo-sensitivity via corticosterone. Body temperature of rats in H30, H60 and H120 groups were higher (P < 0.05) than the control. Compared to the control, corticosterone levels of heart, stomach and small intestine at H30, corticosterone levels in adrenal, leg muscle and stomach at H60, and corticosterone levels in adrenal, heart, lung, stomach and small intestine at H120 differed (P < 0.05). The corticosterone in lung tissue was an excellent indicator of acute heat stress, with an area under the curve (AUC) of 1.00 at H60 and H120. In order to improve the prediction of acute heat stress, models combining corticosterone levels of multiple tissues reached an AUC of 1.00 for H30, and the sensitivity increased to 100% for H60 and H120. In conclusion, changes in the patterns and thermosensitivity of corticosterone levels associated with the duration of heat stress across body tissues were evidenced. The single and multi-organizational corticosterone models serve as indicators for evaluating heat stress across different time periods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinhuan Dou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, PR China
| | - Yuri R Montanholi
- Animal Production, Welfare and Veterinary Sciences Department, Harper Adams University, Newport, Shropshire, United Kingdom
| | - Zezhao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, PR China
| | - Zhongshu Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yanbian University, Yanji, PR China
| | - Ying Yu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, PR China
| | - Janel E Martell
- Animal Production, Welfare and Veterinary Sciences Department, Harper Adams University, Newport, Shropshire, United Kingdom
| | - Ya Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Beijing Engineering Technology Research Center of Raw Milk Quality and Safety Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, PR China.
| | - Yachun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, MARA, National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, 100193 Beijing, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Multiphysics and Thermal Response Models to Improve Accuracy of Local Temperature Estimation in Rat Cortex under Microwave Exposure. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 14:ijerph14040358. [PMID: 28358345 PMCID: PMC5409559 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14040358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The rapid development of wireless technology has led to widespread concerns regarding adverse human health effects caused by exposure to electromagnetic fields. Temperature elevation in biological bodies is an important factor that can adversely affect health. A thermophysiological model is desired to quantify microwave (MW) induced temperature elevations. In this study, parameters related to thermophysiological responses for MW exposures were estimated using an electromagnetic-thermodynamics simulation technique. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study in which parameters related to regional cerebral blood flow in a rat model were extracted at a high degree of accuracy through experimental measurements for localized MW exposure at frequencies exceeding 6 GHz. The findings indicate that the improved modeling parameters yield computed results that match well with the measured quantities during and after exposure in rats. It is expected that the computational model will be helpful in estimating the temperature elevation in the rat brain at multiple observation points (that are difficult to measure simultaneously) and in explaining the physiological changes in the local cortex region.
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
The heat-shock response is a key factor in diverse stress scenarios, ranging from hyperthermia to protein folding diseases. However, the complex dynamics of this physiological response have eluded mathematical modeling efforts. Although several computational models have attempted to characterize the heat-shock response, they were unable to model its dynamics across diverse experimental datasets. To address this limitation, we mined the literature to obtain a compendium of in vitro hyperthermia experiments investigating the heat-shock response in HeLa cells. We identified mechanisms previously discussed in the experimental literature, such as temperature-dependent transcription, translation, and heat-shock factor (HSF) oligomerization, as well as the role of heat-shock protein mRNA, and constructed an expanded mathematical model to explain the temperature-varying DNA-binding dynamics, the presence of free HSF during homeostasis and the initial phase of the heat-shock response, and heat-shock protein dynamics in the long-term heat-shock response. In addition, our model was able to consistently predict the extent of damage produced by different combinations of exposure temperatures and durations, which were validated against known cellular-response patterns. Our model was also in agreement with experiments showing that the number of HSF molecules in a HeLa cell is roughly 100 times greater than the number of stress-activated heat-shock element sites, further confirming the model’s ability to reproduce experimental results not used in model calibration. Finally, a sensitivity analysis revealed that altering the homeostatic concentration of HSF can lead to large changes in the stress response without significantly impacting the homeostatic levels of other model components, making it an attractive target for intervention. Overall, this model represents a step forward in the quantitative understanding of the dynamics of the heat-shock response.
Collapse
|
13
|
King MA, Leon LR, Mustico DL, Haines JM, Clanton TL. Biomarkers of multiorgan injury in a preclinical model of exertional heat stroke. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2015; 118:1207-20. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01051.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
It is likely that the pathophysiology of exertional heat stroke (EHS) differs from passive heat stroke (PHS), but this has been difficult to verify experimentally. C57Bl/6 mice were instrumented with temperature transponders and underwent 3 wk of training using voluntary and forced running wheels. An EHS group was exposed to environmental temperatures (Tenv) of 37.5, 38.5, or 39.5°C at either 30, 50, or 90% relative humidities (RH) while exercising on a forced running wheel. Results were compared with sham-matched exercise controls (EXC) and naïve controls (NC). In EHS, mice exercised in heat until they reached limiting neurological symptoms (loss of consciousness). The symptom-limited maximum core temperatures achieved were between 42.1 and 42.5°C at 50% RH. All mice that were followed for 4 days survived. Additional groups were killed at 0.5, 3, 24, and 96 h, post-EHS or -EXC. Histopathology revealed extensive damage in all regions of the small intestine, liver, and kidney. Plasma creatine kinase, blood urea nitrogen, alanine transaminase, and intestinal fatty acid binding protein-2 were significantly elevated compared with matched EXC and NC, suggesting multiple organ injury to striated muscle, kidney, liver, and intestine, respectively. EHS mice were hypoglycemic immediately following EHS but exhibited sustained hyperglycemia through 4 days. The results demonstrate unique features of survivable EHS in the mouse that included loss of consciousness, extensive organ injury, and rhabdomyolysis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A. King
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; and
| | - Lisa R. Leon
- Thermal and Mountain Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts
| | - Danielle L. Mustico
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; and
| | - Joel M. Haines
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; and
| | - Thomas L. Clanton
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida; and
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ippolito DL, Lewis JA, Yu C, Leon LR, Stallings JD. Alteration in circulating metabolites during and after heat stress in the conscious rat: potential biomarkers of exposure and organ-specific injury. BMC PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 14:14. [PMID: 25623799 PMCID: PMC4306243 DOI: 10.1186/s12899-014-0014-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heat illness is a debilitating and potentially life-threatening condition. Limited data are available to identify individuals with heat illness at greatest risk for organ damage. We recently described the transcriptomic and proteomic responses to heat injury and recovery in multiple organs in an in vivo model of conscious rats heated to a maximum core temperature of 41.8°C (Tc,Max). In this study, we examined changes in plasma metabolic networks at Tc,Max, 24, or 48 hours after the heat stress stimulus. RESULTS Circulating metabolites were identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Bioinformatics analysis of the metabolomic data corroborated proteomics and transcriptomics data in the tissue at the pathway level, supporting modulations in metabolic networks including cell death or catabolism (pyrimidine and purine degradation, acetylation, sulfation, redox alterations and glutathione metabolism, and the urea cycle/creatinine metabolism), energetics (stasis in glycolysis and tricarboxylic acid cycle, β-oxidation), cholesterol and nitric oxide metabolism, and bile acids. Hierarchical clustering identified 15 biochemicals that differentiated animals with histopathological evidence of cardiac injury at 48 hours from uninjured animals. The metabolic networks perturbed in the plasma corroborated the tissue proteomics and transcriptomics pathway data, supporting a model of irreversible cell death and decrements in energetics as key indicators of cardiac damage in response to heat stress. CONCLUSIONS Integrating plasma metabolomics with tissue proteomics and transcriptomics supports a diagnostic approach to assessing individual susceptibility to organ injury and predicting recovery after heat stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danielle L Ippolito
- />The United States Army Center for Environmental Health Research, Environmental Health Program, Bldg. 568 Doughten Drive, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702-5010 USA
| | - John A Lewis
- />The United States Army Center for Environmental Health Research, Environmental Health Program, Bldg. 568 Doughten Drive, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702-5010 USA
| | - Chenggang Yu
- />Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Frederick, MD 21702-5010 USA
| | - Lisa R Leon
- />Thermal Mountain Medicine Division, US Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA 01760-5007 USA
| | - Jonathan D Stallings
- />The United States Army Center for Environmental Health Research, Environmental Health Program, Bldg. 568 Doughten Drive, Fort Detrick, Frederick, MD 21702-5010 USA
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Stallings JD, Ippolito DL, Rakesh V, Baer CE, Dennis WE, Helwig BG, Jackson DA, Leon LR, Lewis JA, Reifman J. Patterns of gene expression associated with recovery and injury in heat-stressed rats. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:1058. [PMID: 25471284 PMCID: PMC4302131 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-1058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The in vivo gene response associated with hyperthermia is poorly understood. Here, we perform a global, multiorgan characterization of the gene response to heat stress using an in vivo conscious rat model. Results We heated rats until implanted thermal probes indicated a maximal core temperature of 41.8°C (Tc,Max). We then compared transcriptomic profiles of liver, lung, kidney, and heart tissues harvested from groups of experimental animals at Tc,Max, 24 hours, and 48 hours after heat stress to time-matched controls kept at an ambient temperature. Cardiac histopathology at 48 hours supported persistent cardiac injury in three out of six animals. Microarray analysis identified 78 differentially expressed genes common to all four organs at Tc,Max. Self-organizing maps identified gene-specific signatures corresponding to protein-folding disorders in heat-stressed rats with histopathological evidence of cardiac injury at 48 hours. Quantitative proteomics analysis by iTRAQ (isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation) demonstrated that differential protein expression most closely matched the transcriptomic profile in heat-injured animals at 48 hours. Calculation of protein supersaturation scores supported an increased propensity of proteins to aggregate for proteins that were found to be changing in abundance at 24 hours and in animals with cardiac injury at 48 hours, suggesting a mechanistic association between protein misfolding and the heat-stress response. Conclusions Pathway analyses at both the transcript and protein levels supported catastrophic deficits in energetics and cellular metabolism and activation of the unfolded protein response in heat-stressed rats with histopathological evidence of persistent heat injury, providing the basis for a systems-level physiological model of heat illness and recovery. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-1058) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D Stallings
- Environmental Health Program, U,S, Army Center for Environmental Health Research, Bldg, 568 Doughten Drive, MD 21702-5010 Fort Detrick, Maryland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Rakesh V, Stallings JD, Reifman J. A virtual rat for simulating environmental and exertional heat stress. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014; 117:1278-86. [PMID: 25277741 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00614.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe cases of environmental or exertional heat stress can lead to varying degrees of organ dysfunction. To understand heat-injury progression and develop efficient management and mitigation strategies, it is critical to determine the thermal response in susceptible organs under different heat-stress conditions. To this end, we used our previously published virtual rat, which is capable of computing the spatiotemporal temperature distribution in the animal, and extended it to simulate various heat-stress scenarios, including 1) different environmental conditions, 2) exertional heat stress, 3) circadian rhythm effect on the thermal response, and 4) whole body cooling. Our predictions were consistent with published in vivo temperature measurements for all cases, validating our simulations. We observed a differential thermal response in the organs, with the liver experiencing the highest temperatures for all environmental and exertional heat-stress cases. For every 3°C rise in the external temperature from 40 to 46°C, core and organ temperatures increased by ∼0.8°C. Core temperatures increased by 2.6 and 4.1°C for increases in exercise intensity from rest to 75 and 100% of maximal O2 consumption, respectively. We also found differences as large as 0.8°C in organ temperatures for the same heat stress induced at different times during the day. Even after whole body cooling at a relatively low external temperature (1°C for 20 min), average organ temperatures were still elevated by 2.3 to 2.5°C compared with normothermia. These results can be used to optimize experimental protocol designs, reduce the amount of animal experimentation, and design and test improved heat-stress prevention and management strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vineet Rakesh
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Fort Detrick, Maryland; and
| | - Jonathan D Stallings
- Environmental Health Program, United States Army Center for Environmental Health Research, Fort Detrick, Maryland
| | - Jaques Reifman
- Department of Defense Biotechnology High Performance Computing Software Applications Institute, Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center, United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, Fort Detrick, Maryland; and
| |
Collapse
|