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Chaillou T, Treigyte V, Mosely S, Brazaitis M, Venckunas T, Cheng AJ. Functional Impact of Post-exercise Cooling and Heating on Recovery and Training Adaptations: Application to Resistance, Endurance, and Sprint Exercise. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:37. [PMID: 35254558 PMCID: PMC8901468 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00428-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The application of post-exercise cooling (e.g., cold water immersion) and post-exercise heating has become a popular intervention which is assumed to increase functional recovery and may improve chronic training adaptations. However, the effectiveness of such post-exercise temperature manipulations remains uncertain. The aim of this comprehensive review was to analyze the effects of post-exercise cooling and post-exercise heating on neuromuscular function (maximal strength and power), fatigue resistance, exercise performance, and training adaptations. We focused on three exercise types (resistance, endurance and sprint exercises) and included studies investigating (1) the early recovery phase, (2) the late recovery phase, and (3) repeated application of the treatment. We identified that the primary benefit of cooling was in the early recovery phase (< 1 h post-exercise) in improving fatigue resistance in hot ambient conditions following endurance exercise and possibly enhancing the recovery of maximal strength following resistance exercise. The primary negative impact of cooling was with chronic exposure which impaired strength adaptations and decreased fatigue resistance following resistance training intervention (12 weeks and 4–12 weeks, respectively). In the early recovery phase, cooling could also impair sprint performance following sprint exercise and could possibly reduce neuromuscular function immediately after endurance exercise. Generally, no benefits of acute cooling were observed during the 24–72-h recovery period following resistance and endurance exercises, while it could have some benefits on the recovery of neuromuscular function during the 24–48-h recovery period following sprint exercise. Most studies indicated that chronic cooling does not affect endurance training adaptations following 4–6 week training intervention. We identified limited data employing heating as a recovery intervention, but some indications suggest promise in its application to endurance and sprint exercise.
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Katz A. The role of glycogen phosphorylase in glycogen biogenesis in skeletal muscle after exercise. SPORTS MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2022; 5:29-33. [PMID: 36994178 PMCID: PMC10040329 DOI: 10.1016/j.smhs.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Initially it was believed that phosphorylase was responsible for both glycogen breakdown and synthesis in the living cell. The discovery of glycogen synthase and McArdle's disease (lack of phosphorylase activity), together with the high Pi/glucose 1-P ratio in skeletal muscle, demonstrated that glycogen synthesis could not be attributed to reversal of the phosphorylase reaction. Rather, glycogen synthesis was attributable solely to the activity of glycogen synthase, subsequent to the transport of glucose into the cell. However, the well-established observation that phosphorylase was inactivated (i.e., dephosphorylated) during the initial recovery period after prior exercise, when the rate of glycogen accumulation is highest and independent of insulin, suggested that phosphorylase could play an active role in glycogen accumulation. But the quantitative contribution of phosphorylase inactivation was not established until recently, when studying isolated murine muscle preparations during recovery from repeated contractions at temperatures ranging from 25 to 35 °C. Thus, in both slow-twitch, oxidative and fast-twitch, glycolytic muscles, inactivation of phosphorylase accounted for 45%-75% of glycogen accumulation during the initial hours of recovery following repeated contractions. Such data indicate that phosphorylase inactivation may be the most important mechanism for glycogen accumulation under defined conditions. These results support the initial belief that phosphorylase plays a quantitative role in glycogen formation in the living cell. However, the mechanism is not via activation of phosphorylase, but rather via inactivation of the enzyme.
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A century of exercise physiology: key concepts in regulation of glycogen metabolism in skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:1751-1772. [PMID: 35355125 PMCID: PMC9287217 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-04935-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Glycogen is a branched, glucose polymer and the storage form of glucose in cells. Glycogen has traditionally been viewed as a key substrate for muscle ATP production during conditions of high energy demand and considered to be limiting for work capacity and force generation under defined conditions. Glycogenolysis is catalyzed by phosphorylase, while glycogenesis is catalyzed by glycogen synthase. For many years, it was believed that a primer was required for de novo glycogen synthesis and the protein considered responsible for this process was ultimately discovered and named glycogenin. However, the subsequent observation of glycogen storage in the absence of functional glycogenin raises questions about the true role of the protein. In resting muscle, phosphorylase is generally considered to be present in two forms: non-phosphorylated and inactive (phosphorylase b) and phosphorylated and constitutively active (phosphorylase a). Initially, it was believed that activation of phosphorylase during intense muscle contraction was primarily accounted for by phosphorylation of phosphorylase b (activated by increases in AMP) to a, and that glycogen synthesis during recovery from exercise occurred solely through mechanisms controlled by glucose transport and glycogen synthase. However, it now appears that these views require modifications. Moreover, the traditional roles of glycogen in muscle function have been extended in recent years and in some instances, the original concepts have undergone revision. Thus, despite the extensive amount of knowledge accrued during the past 100 years, several critical questions remain regarding the regulation of glycogen metabolism and its role in living muscle.
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Hotfiel T, Mayer I, Huettel M, Hoppe MW, Engelhardt M, Lutter C, Pöttgen K, Heiss R, Kastner T, Grim C. Accelerating Recovery from Exercise-Induced Muscle Injuries in Triathletes: Considerations for Olympic Distance Races. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7060143. [PMID: 31200464 PMCID: PMC6628249 DOI: 10.3390/sports7060143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The triathlon is one of the fastest developing sports in the world due to expanding participation and media attention. The fundamental change in Olympic triathlon races from a single to a multistart event is highly demanding in terms of recovery from and prevention of exercise-induced muscle injures. In elite and competitive sports, ultrastructural muscle injuries, including delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), are responsible for impaired muscle performance capacities. Prevention and treatment of these conditions have become key in regaining muscular performance levels and to guarantee performance and economy of motion in swimming, cycling and running. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the current findings on the pathophysiology, as well as treatment and prevention of, these conditions in compliance with clinical implications for elite triathletes. In the context of DOMS, the majority of recovery interventions have focused on different protocols of compression, cold or heat therapy, active regeneration, nutritional interventions, or sleep. The authors agree that there is a compelling need for further studies, including high-quality randomized trials, to completely evaluate the effectiveness of existing therapeutic approaches, particularly in triathletes. The given recommendations must be updated and adjusted, as further evidence emerges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thilo Hotfiel
- Department of Orthopedic, Trauma, Hand and Neuro Surgery, Klinikum Osnabrück GmbH, Osnabrück 49076, Germany.
- Deutsche Triathlon Union (DTU), Frankfurt 60528, Germany.
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen 91054, Germany.
| | - Isabel Mayer
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen 91054, Germany.
| | - Moritz Huettel
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen 91054, Germany.
| | - Matthias Wilhelm Hoppe
- Department of Orthopedic, Trauma, Hand and Neuro Surgery, Klinikum Osnabrück GmbH, Osnabrück 49076, Germany.
- Department of Movement and Training Science, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal 42119, Germany.
| | - Martin Engelhardt
- Department of Orthopedic, Trauma, Hand and Neuro Surgery, Klinikum Osnabrück GmbH, Osnabrück 49076, Germany.
- Deutsche Triathlon Union (DTU), Frankfurt 60528, Germany.
| | - Christoph Lutter
- Department of Orthopedics, Rostock University Medical Center, Rostock 18057, Germany.
- Department of Sports Orthopedics, Sports Medicine, Sports Traumatology, Klinikum Bamberg, Bamberg 96049, Germany.
| | | | - Rafael Heiss
- Department of Radiology, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen 91054, Germany.
| | - Tom Kastner
- Deutsche Triathlon Union (DTU), Frankfurt 60528, Germany.
- Department of Sport Medicine Humboldt University and Charité University Medicine, Berlin 10117, Germany.
- Institute for Applied Training Science Leipzig (IAT), Leipzig 04109, Germany.
| | - Casper Grim
- Department of Orthopedic, Trauma, Hand and Neuro Surgery, Klinikum Osnabrück GmbH, Osnabrück 49076, Germany.
- Deutsche Triathlon Union (DTU), Frankfurt 60528, Germany.
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DiNuzzo M, Walls AB, Öz G, Seaquist ER, Waagepetersen HS, Bak LK, Nedergaard M, Schousboe A. State-Dependent Changes in Brain Glycogen Metabolism. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2019; 23:269-309. [PMID: 31667812 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-27480-1_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
A fundamental understanding of glycogen structure, concentration, polydispersity and turnover is critical to qualify the role of glycogen in the brain. These molecular and metabolic features are under the control of neuronal activity through the interdependent action of neuromodulatory tone, ionic homeostasis and availability of metabolic substrates, all variables that concur to define the state of the system. In this chapter, we briefly describe how glycogen responds to selected behavioral, nutritional, environmental, hormonal, developmental and pathological conditions. We argue that interpreting glycogen metabolism through the lens of brain state is an effective approach to establish the relevance of energetics in connecting molecular and cellular neurophysiology to behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro DiNuzzo
- Center for Basic and Translational Neuroscience, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Anne B Walls
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Gülin Öz
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, Department of Radiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | | | - Helle S Waagepetersen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lasse K Bak
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Maiken Nedergaard
- Center for Basic and Translational Neuroscience, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Rochester Medical School, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Arne Schousboe
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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