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Müller C, Bendixen A, Kopiske K. Sensorimotor adaptation impedes perturbation detection in grasping. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02543-y. [PMID: 39048890 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02543-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Humans achieve skilled actions by continuously correcting for motor errors or perceptual misjudgments, a process called sensorimotor adaptation. This can occur with the actor both detecting (explicitly) and not detecting the error (implicitly). We investigated how the magnitude of a perturbation and the corresponding error signal each contribute to the detection of a size perturbation during interaction with real-world objects. Participants grasped cuboids of different lengths in a mirror-setup allowing us to present different sizes for seen and felt cuboids, respectively. Visuo-haptic size mismatches (perturbations) were introduced either abruptly or followed a sinusoidal schedule. These schedules dissociated the error signal from the visuo-haptic mismatch: Participants could fully adapt their grip and reduce the error when a perturbation was introduced abruptly and then stayed the same, but not with a constantly changing sinusoidal perturbation. We compared participants' performance in a two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) task where participants judged these mismatches, and modelled error-correction in grasping movements by looking at changes in maximum grip apertures, measured using motion tracking. We found similar mismatch-detection performance with sinusoidal perturbation schedules and the first trial after an abrupt change, but decreasing performance over further trials for the latter. This is consistent with the idea that reduced error signals following adaptation make it harder to detect perturbations. Error-correction parameters indicated stronger error-correction in abruptly introduced perturbations. However, we saw no correlation between error-correction and overall mismatch-detection performance. This emphasizes the distinct contributions of the perturbation magnitude and the error signal in helping participants detect sensory perturbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Müller
- Cognitive Systems Lab, Institute of Physics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126, Chemnitz, Germany.
| | - Alexandra Bendixen
- Cognitive Systems Lab, Institute of Physics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Karl Kopiske
- Cognitive Systems Lab, Institute of Physics, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09126, Chemnitz, Germany
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2
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Jacobsen NA, Ferris DP. Electrocortical theta activity may reflect sensory prediction errors during adaptation to a gradual gait perturbation. PeerJ 2024; 12:e17451. [PMID: 38854799 PMCID: PMC11162180 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Locomotor adaptation to abrupt and gradual perturbations are likely driven by fundamentally different neural processes. The aim of this study was to quantify brain dynamics associated with gait adaptation to a gradually introduced gait perturbation, which typically results in smaller behavioral errors relative to an abrupt perturbation. Loss of balance during standing and walking elicits transient increases in midfrontal theta oscillations that have been shown to scale with perturbation intensity. We hypothesized there would be no significant change in anterior cingulate theta power (4-7 Hz) with respect to pre-adaptation when a gait perturbation is introduced gradually because the gradual perturbation acceleration and stepping kinematic errors are small relative to an abrupt perturbation. Using mobile electroencephalography (EEG), we measured gait-related spectral changes near the anterior cingulate, posterior cingulate, sensorimotor, and posterior parietal cortices as young, neurotypical adults (n = 30) adapted their gait to an incremental split-belt treadmill perturbation. Most cortical clusters we examined (>70%) did not exhibit changes in electrocortical activity between 2-50 Hz. However, we did observe gait-related theta synchronization near the left anterior cingulate cortex during strides with the largest errors, as measured by step length asymmetry. These results suggest gradual adaptation with small gait asymmetry and perturbation magnitude may not require significant cortical resources beyond normal treadmill walking. Nevertheless, the anterior cingulate may remain actively engaged in error monitoring, transmitting sensory prediction error information via theta oscillations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelle A. Jacobsen
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
| | - Daniel Perry Ferris
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States of America
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3
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Different modulation of oscillatory common neural drives to ankle muscles during abrupt and gradual gait adaptations. Exp Brain Res 2022; 240:871-886. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-021-06294-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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4
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Leclere NX, Sarlegna FR, Coello Y, Bourdin C. Gradual exposure to Coriolis force induces sensorimotor adaptation with no change in peripersonal space. Sci Rep 2022; 12:922. [PMID: 35042915 PMCID: PMC8766485 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-04961-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The space immediately surrounding the body is crucial for the organization of voluntary motor actions and seems to be functionally represented in the brain according to motor capacities. However, despite extensive research, little is known about how the representation of peripersonal space is adjusted to new action capacities. Abrupt exposure to a new force field has been shown to cause the representation of peripersonal space to shrink, possibly reflecting a conservative spatial strategy triggered by consciously-perceived motor errors. The present study assessed whether the representation of peripersonal space is influenced by gradual exposure of reaching movements to a new force field, produced by a stepwise acceleration of a rotating platform. We hypothesized that such gradual exposure would induce progressive sensorimotor adaptation to motor errors, albeit too small to be consciously perceived. In contrast, we hypothesized that reachability judgments, used as a proxy of peripersonal space representation, would not be significantly affected. Results showed that gradual exposure to Coriolis force produced a systematic after-effect on reaching movements but no significant change in reachability judgments. We speculate that the conscious experience of large motor errors may influence the updating of the representation of peripersonal space.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yann Coello
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Lille, UMR 9193 - SCALab - Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, Lille, France
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5
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Moore RT, Cluff T. Individual Differences in Sensorimotor Adaptation Are Conserved Over Time and Across Force-Field Tasks. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:692181. [PMID: 34916916 PMCID: PMC8669441 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.692181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensorimotor adaptation enables the nervous system to modify actions for different conditions and environments. Many studies have investigated factors that influence adaptation at the group level. There is growing recognition that individuals vary in their ability to adapt motor skills and that a better understanding of individual differences in adaptation may inform how motor skills are taught and rehabilitated. Here we examined individual differences in the adaptation of upper-limb reaching movements. We quantified the extent to which participants adapted their movements to a velocity-dependent force field during an initial session, at 24 h, and again 1-week later. Participants (n = 28) displayed savings, which was expressed as greater initial adaptation when re-exposed to the force field. Individual differences in adaptation across various stages of the experiment displayed weak-strong reliability, such that individuals who adapted to a greater extent in the initial session tended to do so when re-exposed to the force field. Our second experiment investigated if individual differences in adaptation are also present when participants adapt to different force fields or a force field and visuomotor rotation. Separate groups of participants adapted to position- and velocity-dependent force fields (Experiment 2a; n = 20) or a velocity-dependent force field and visuomotor rotation in a single session (Experiment 2b; n = 20). Participants who adapted to a greater extent to velocity-dependent forces tended to show a greater extent of adaptation when exposed to position-dependent forces. In contrast, correlations were weak between various stages of adaptation to the force-field and visuomotor rotation. Collectively, our study reveals individual differences in adaptation that are reliable across repeated exposure to the same force field and present when adapting to different force fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert T Moore
- Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Tyler Cluff
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.,Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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6
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Ohashi H, Gribble PL, Ostry DJ. Somatosensory cortical excitability changes precede those in motor cortex during human motor learning. J Neurophysiol 2019; 122:1397-1405. [PMID: 31390294 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00383.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor learning is associated with plasticity in both motor and somatosensory cortex. It is known from animal studies that tetanic stimulation to each of these areas individually induces long-term potentiation in its counterpart. In this context it is possible that changes in motor cortex contribute to somatosensory change and that changes in somatosensory cortex are involved in changes in motor areas of the brain. It is also possible that learning-related plasticity occurs in these areas independently. To better understand the relative contribution to human motor learning of motor cortical and somatosensory plasticity, we assessed the time course of changes in primary somatosensory and motor cortex excitability during motor skill learning. Learning was assessed using a force production task in which a target force profile varied from one trial to the next. The excitability of primary somatosensory cortex was measured using somatosensory evoked potentials in response to median nerve stimulation. The excitability of primary motor cortex was measured using motor evoked potentials elicited by single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation. These two measures were interleaved with blocks of motor learning trials. We found that the earliest changes in cortical excitability during learning occurred in somatosensory cortical responses, and these changes preceded changes in motor cortical excitability. Changes in somatosensory evoked potentials were correlated with behavioral measures of learning. Changes in motor evoked potentials were not. These findings indicate that plasticity in somatosensory cortex occurs as a part of the earliest stages of motor learning, before changes in motor cortex are observed.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We tracked somatosensory and motor cortical excitability during motor skill acquisition. Changes in both motor cortical and somatosensory excitability were observed during learning; however, the earliest changes were in somatosensory cortex, not motor cortex. Moreover, the earliest changes in somatosensory cortical excitability predict the extent of subsequent learning; those in motor cortex do not. This is consistent with the idea that plasticity in somatosensory cortex coincides with the earliest stages of human motor learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Ohashi
- Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Paul L Gribble
- Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, Connecticut.,The Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - David J Ostry
- Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Ohashi H, Valle-Mena R, Gribble PL, Ostry DJ. Movements following force-field adaptation are aligned with altered sense of limb position. Exp Brain Res 2019; 237:1303-1313. [PMID: 30863880 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-019-05509-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Previous work has shown that motor learning is associated with changes to both movements and to the somatosensory perception of limb position. In an earlier study that motivates the current work, it appeared that following washout trials, movements did not return to baseline but rather were aligned with associated changes to sensed limb position. Here, we provide a systematic test of this relationship, examining the idea that adaptation-related changes to sensed limb position and to the path of the limb are linked, not only after washout trials but at all stages of the adaptation process. We used a force-field adaptation paradigm followed by washout trials in which subjects performed movements without visual feedback of the limb. Tests of sensed limb position were conducted at each phase of adaptation, specifically before and after baseline movements in a null field, after force-field adaptation, and following washout trials in a null field. As in previous work, sensed limb position changed in association with force-field adaptation. At each stage of adaptation, we observed a correlation between the sensed limb position and associated path of the limb. At a group level, there were differences between the clockwise and counter-clockwise conditions. However, whenever there were changes in sensed limb position, movements following washout did not return to baseline. This suggests that adaptation in sensory and motor systems is not independent processes but rather sensorimotor adaptation is linked to sensory change. Sensory change and limb movement remain in alignment throughout adaptation such that the path of the limb is aligned with the altered sense of limb position.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Paul L Gribble
- Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, CT, USA.,Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - David J Ostry
- Haskins Laboratories, New Haven, CT, USA. .,Department of Psychology, McGill University, 2001 McGill College, Montreal, QC, H3A 1G1, Canada.
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8
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Hirano M, Kubota S, Koizume Y, Funase K. Acquisition of motor memory determines the interindividual variability of learning-induced plasticity in the primary motor cortex. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2018; 125:990-998. [PMID: 29975602 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00470.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Acquisition of new motor skills induces plastic reorganization in the primary motor cortex (M1). Previous studies have demonstrated the increases in the M1 excitability through motor skill learning. However, this M1 reorganization is highly variable between individuals even though they improve their skill performance through the same training protocol. To reveal the source of this interindividual variability, we examined the relationship between an acquisition of memory-guided feedforward movements and the learning-induced increases in the M1 excitability. Twenty-eight subjects participated in experiment 1. We asked subjects to learn a visuomotor tracking task. The subjects controlled a cursor on a PC monitor to pursue a target line by performing ankle dorsiflexion and plantar flexion. In experiment 1, we removed the online visual feedback provided by the cursor movement once every six trials, which enabled us to assess whether the subjects could perform accurate memory-guided movements. Motor-evoked potentials (MEP) were elicited in the tibialis anterior muscle by transcranial magnetic stimulation of the relevant M1 before and after the learning of the visuomotor tracking task and after half the trials. We found that the MEP amplitude was increased along with the improvement in memory-guided movements. In experiment 2 ( n = 10), we confirmed this relationship by examining whether the improvement in memory-guided movements induces increases in MEP amplitude. The results of this study indicate that the plastic reorganization of the M1 induced by the learning of a visuomotor skill is associated with the acquisition of memory-guided movements. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Acquisition of novel motor skills increases excitability of the primary motor cortex (M1). We recently reported that the amount of increases in the M1 excitability is highly variable between individuals even though they learned the same skill to the similar extent, yet the sources of this interindividual variability still remain unclear. The present study revealed that this interindividual variability is associated with whether individuals acquire a motor memory, which enables them to produce accurate memory-guided movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Hirano
- Human Motor Control Laboratory, Graduate School of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University , Hiroshima , Japan
| | - Shinji Kubota
- Human Motor Control Laboratory, Graduate School of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University , Hiroshima , Japan
| | - Yoshiki Koizume
- Human Motor Control Laboratory, Graduate School of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University , Hiroshima , Japan
| | - Kozo Funase
- Human Motor Control Laboratory, Graduate School of Integrated Arts and Sciences, Hiroshima University , Hiroshima , Japan
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9
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Michel C, Bonnetain L, Amoura S, White O. Force field adaptation does not alter space representation. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10982. [PMID: 30030482 PMCID: PMC6054688 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-29283-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Prism adaptation is a well-known model to study sensorimotor adaptive processes. It has been shown that following prism exposure, after-effects are not only restricted to the sensorimotor level but extend as well to spatial cognition. The main purpose of the present study was to investigate in healthy individuals whether expansion to spatial cognition is restricted to adaptive processes peculiar to prism adaptation or whether it occurs as well following other forms of adaptive process such as adaptation to a novel dynamic environment during pointing movements. Representational after-effects were assessed by the perceptual line bisection task before and after adaptation to a leftward or a rightward force field. The main results showed that adaptation developed at sensorimotor level but did not influence space representation. Our results have therefore a strong methodological impact for prospective investigations focusing on sensorimotor plasticity while sparing space cognition. These methodological considerations will be particulary relevant when addressing sensorimotor plasticity in patients with specific representational feature to preserve. The discussion highlights the differences between prism and dynamic adaptation that could explain the lack of after-effect on space representation following force field adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carine Michel
- INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UFR des Sciences du Sport, F-21000, Dijon, France.
| | - Lucie Bonnetain
- INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UFR des Sciences du Sport, F-21000, Dijon, France
| | - Sarah Amoura
- INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UFR des Sciences du Sport, F-21000, Dijon, France
| | - Olivier White
- INSERM UMR1093-CAPS, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, UFR des Sciences du Sport, F-21000, Dijon, France
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10
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Progressive practice promotes motor learning and repeated transient increases in corticospinal excitability across multiple days. Brain Stimul 2017; 11:346-357. [PMID: 29187320 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A session of motor skill learning is accompanied by transient increases in corticospinal excitability(CSE), which are thought to reflect acute changes in neuronal connectivity associated with improvements in sensorimotor performance. Factors influencing changes in excitability and motor skill with continued practice remain however to be elucidated. OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS Here we investigate the hypothesis that progressive motor practice during consecutive days can induce repeated transient increases in corticospinal excitability and promote motor skill learning. METHODS Changes in motor performance and CSE were assessed during 4 consecutive days of skill learning and 8 days after the last practice session. CSE was assessed as area under recruitment curves(RC) using transcranial magnetic stimulation(TMS). Two groups of participants(n = 12) practiced a visuomotor tracking-task with task difficulty progressively increased with individual proficiency(PPG) or with the same task level throughout all 4 days(NPPG). RESULTS Progressive practice resulted in superior motor learning compared to NPPG(p < 0.001). Whereas NPPG displayed increased CSE following only the first day of practice(p < 0.001), progressive motor practice was accompanied by increases in CSE on both the first and the final session of motor practice(p = 0.006). Eight days after ended practice, the groups showed similar CSE, but PPG maintained superior performance at a skilled task level and transfer task performance(p < 0.005,p = 0.029). CONCLUSION The results demonstrate that progressive practice promotes both motor learning and repeated increases in CSE across multiple days. While changes in CSE did not relate to learning our results suggest that they signify successful training. Progressive practice is thus important for optimizing neurorehabilitation and motor practice protocols in general.
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Disruption of M1 Activity during Performance Plateau Impairs Consolidation of Motor Memories. J Neurosci 2017; 37:9197-9206. [PMID: 28821677 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3916-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon exposure to a new sensorimotor relationship, motor behaviors iteratively change early in adaptation but eventually stabilize as adaptation proceeds. Behavioral work suggests that motor memory consolidation is initiated upon the attainment of asymptotic levels of performance. Separate lines of evidence point to a critical role of the primary motor cortex (M1) in consolidation. However, a causal relationship between M1 activity during asymptote and consolidation has yet to be demonstrated. The present study investigated this issue in male and female participants using single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to interfere with postmovement activity in M1 in two behavioral phases of a ramp-and-hold visuomotor adaptation paradigm. TMS was either provided after each trial of the ramp phase of adaptation when a gradual increase in the visuomotor rotation caused movements to be changing, or after each trial of the hold phase of adaptation when the rotation was held constant and movements tended to stabilize. Consolidation was assessed by measuring performance on the same task 24 h later. Results revealed that TMS did not influence adaptation to the new visuomotor relationship in either condition. Critically, however, TMS disruption of M1 activity selectively impaired consolidation of motor memories when it was provided during the hold phase of adaptation. This effect did not take place when TMS was delivered over adjacent dorsal premotor cortex or when motor behaviors in late adaptation were prevented from plateauing. Together, these data suggest that the impaired consolidation stemmed from interference with mechanisms of repetition-dependent plasticity in M1.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The present work demonstrates that TMS disruption of M1 activity impairs the consolidation of motor memories selectively when performance reaches asymptotic levels during sensorimotor adaptation. These findings provide evidence for a causal contribution of M1 to motor memory formation when movements tend to repeat, likely through mechanisms of repetition-dependent plasticity.
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12
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Learning to Predict and Control the Physics of Our Movements. J Neurosci 2017; 37:1663-1671. [PMID: 28202784 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1675-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
When we hold an object in our hand, the mass of the object alters the physics of our arm, changing the relationship between motor commands that our brain sends to our arm muscles and the resulting motion of our hand. If the object is unfamiliar to us, our first movement will exhibit an error, producing a trajectory that is different from the one we had intended. This experience of error initiates learning in our brain, making it so that on the very next attempt our motor commands partially compensate for the unfamiliar physics, resulting in smaller errors. With further practice, the compensation becomes more complete, and our brain forms a model that predicts the physics of the object. This model is a motor memory that frees us from having to relearn the physics the next time that we encounter the object. The mechanism by which the brain transforms sensory prediction errors into corrective motor commands is the basis for how we learn the physics of objects with which we interact. The cerebellum and the motor cortex appear to be critical for our ability to learn physics, allowing us to use tools that extend our capabilities, making us masters of our environment.
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13
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Mavromatis N, Neige C, Gagné M, Reilly KT, Mercier C. Effect of Experimental Hand Pain on Training-Induced Changes in Motor Performance and Corticospinal Excitability. Brain Sci 2017; 7:brainsci7020015. [PMID: 28165363 PMCID: PMC5332958 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci7020015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Revised: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Pain influences plasticity within the sensorimotor system and the aim of this study was to assess the effect of pain on changes in motor performance and corticospinal excitability during training for a novel motor task. A total of 30 subjects were allocated to one of two groups (Pain, NoPain) and performed ten training blocks of a visually-guided isometric pinch task. Each block consisted of 15 force sequences, and subjects modulated the force applied to a transducer in order to reach one of five target forces. Pain was induced by applying capsaicin cream to the thumb. Motor performance was assessed by a skill index that measured shifts in the speed–accuracy trade-off function. Neurophysiological measures were taken from the first dorsal interosseous using transcranial magnetic stimulation. Overall, the Pain group performed better throughout the training (p = 0.03), but both groups showed similar improvements across training blocks (p < 0.001), and there was no significant interaction. Corticospinal excitability in the NoPain group increased halfway through the training, but this was not observed in the Pain group (Time × Group interaction; p = 0.01). These results suggest that, even when pain does not negatively impact on the acquisition of a novel motor task, it can affect training-related changes in corticospinal excitability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Mavromatis
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation and Social Integration, Québec, QC G1M 2S8, Canada.
- Department of Rehabilitation, Laval University, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - Cécilia Neige
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation and Social Integration, Québec, QC G1M 2S8, Canada.
- Department of Rehabilitation, Laval University, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - Martin Gagné
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation and Social Integration, Québec, QC G1M 2S8, Canada.
| | - Karen T Reilly
- ImpAct Team, Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, INSERM U1028, CNRS UMR5292, Bron 69500, France.
- University Claude Bernard Lyon I, Lyon F-69000, France.
| | - Catherine Mercier
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation and Social Integration, Québec, QC G1M 2S8, Canada.
- Department of Rehabilitation, Laval University, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
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14
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Pizzamiglio S, De Lillo M, Naeem U, Abdalla H, Turner DL. High-Frequency Intermuscular Coherence between Arm Muscles during Robot-Mediated Motor Adaptation. Front Physiol 2017; 7:668. [PMID: 28119620 PMCID: PMC5220015 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Adaptation of arm reaching in a novel force field involves co-contraction of upper limb muscles, but it is not known how the co-ordination of multiple muscle activation is orchestrated. We have used intermuscular coherence (IMC) to test whether a coherent intermuscular coupling between muscle pairs is responsible for novel patterns of activation during adaptation of reaching in a force field. Subjects (N = 16) performed reaching trials during a null force field, then during a velocity-dependent force field and then again during a null force field. Reaching trajectory error increased during early adaptation to the force-field and subsequently decreased during later adaptation. Co-contraction in the majority of all possible muscle pairs also increased during early adaptation and decreased during later adaptation. In contrast, IMC increased during later adaptation and only in a subset of muscle pairs. IMC consistently occurred in frequencies between ~40–100 Hz and during the period of arm movement, suggesting that a coherent intermuscular coupling between those muscles contributing to adaptation enable a reduction in wasteful co-contraction and energetic cost during reaching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Pizzamiglio
- Neuroplasticity and Neurorehabilitation Doctoral Training Programme, Neurorehabilitation Unit, School of Health, Sport and Bioscience, University of East LondonLondon, UK; Department of Computer Science, School of Architecture, Computing and Engineering, University of East LondonLondon, UK
| | - Martina De Lillo
- Neuroplasticity and Neurorehabilitation Doctoral Training Programme, Neurorehabilitation Unit, School of Health, Sport and Bioscience, University of East London London, UK
| | - Usman Naeem
- Department of Computer Science, School of Architecture, Computing and Engineering, University of East London London, UK
| | - Hassan Abdalla
- Department of Computer Science, School of Architecture, Computing and Engineering, University of East London London, UK
| | - Duncan L Turner
- Neuroplasticity and Neurorehabilitation Doctoral Training Programme, Neurorehabilitation Unit, School of Health, Sport and Bioscience, University of East LondonLondon, UK; University College London Partners Centre for NeurorehabilitationLondon, UK
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15
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Batcho CS, Gagné M, Bouyer LJ, Roy JS, Mercier C. Impact of online visual feedback on motor acquisition and retention when learning to reach in a force field. Neuroscience 2016; 337:267-275. [PMID: 27646292 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2015] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
When subjects learn a novel motor task, several sources of feedback (proprioceptive, visual or auditory) contribute to the performance. Over the past few years, several studies have investigated the role of visual feedback in motor learning, yet evidence remains conflicting. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the role of online visual feedback (VFb) on the acquisition and retention stages of motor learning associated with training in a reaching task. Thirty healthy subjects made ballistic reaching movements with their dominant arm toward two targets, on 2 consecutive days using a robotized exoskeleton (KINARM). They were randomly assigned to a group with (VFb) or without (NoVFb) VFb of index position during movement. On day 1, the task was performed before (baseline) and during the application of a velocity-dependent resistive force field (adaptation). To assess retention, participants repeated the task with the force field on day 2. Motor learning was characterized by: (1) the final endpoint error (movement accuracy) and (2) the initial angle (iANG) of deviation (motor planning). Even though both groups showed motor adaptation, the NoVFb-group exhibited slower learning and higher final endpoint error than the VFb-group. In some condition, subjects trained without visual feedback used more curved initial trajectories to anticipate for the perturbation. This observation suggests that learning to reach targets in a velocity-dependent resistive force field is possible even when feedback is limited. However, the absence of VFb leads to different strategies that were only apparent when reaching toward the most challenging target.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Batcho
- Centre interdisciplinaire de recherche en réadaptation et intégration sociale (CIRRIS), Quebec City, Quebec, Canada; Department of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - M Gagné
- Centre interdisciplinaire de recherche en réadaptation et intégration sociale (CIRRIS), Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - L J Bouyer
- Centre interdisciplinaire de recherche en réadaptation et intégration sociale (CIRRIS), Quebec City, Quebec, Canada; Department of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - J S Roy
- Centre interdisciplinaire de recherche en réadaptation et intégration sociale (CIRRIS), Quebec City, Quebec, Canada; Department of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - C Mercier
- Centre interdisciplinaire de recherche en réadaptation et intégration sociale (CIRRIS), Quebec City, Quebec, Canada; Department of Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada.
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Nozaki D, Yokoi A, Kimura T, Hirashima M, Orban de Xivry JJ. Tagging motor memories with transcranial direct current stimulation allows later artificially-controlled retrieval. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27472899 PMCID: PMC5010385 DOI: 10.7554/elife.15378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
We demonstrate that human motor memories can be artificially tagged and later retrieved by noninvasive transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Participants learned to adapt reaching movements to two conflicting dynamical environments that were each associated with a different tDCS polarity (anodal or cathodal tDCS) on the sensorimotor cortex. That is, we sought to determine whether divergent background activity levels within the sensorimotor cortex (anodal: higher activity; cathodal: lower activity) give rise to distinct motor memories. After a training session, application of each tDCS polarity automatically resulted in the retrieval of the motor memory corresponding to that polarity. These results reveal that artificial modulation of neural activity in the sensorimotor cortex through tDCS can act as a context for the formation and recollection of motor memories. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.15378.001 Memory is strongly affected by the context in which a particular memory is formed and remembered. For example, visiting a familiar place can often trigger memories associated or “tagged” with that place. Such tagging also exists for memories related to movement: for instance, distinct motor memories for a limb movement are formed depending on whether the other limb is stationary or moving. However, little is known about how the tagging of such motor memories takes place. Nozaki et al. have now used a technique known as transcranial direct current stimulation to generate artificial “tags” for motor memories. In the experiments, volunteers tried to move a robotic arm towards a goal while the robot pushed their hand off-course. Sometimes the robot pushed the participant’s hand to the left, and sometimes to the right. This makes the task difficult to learn, even when the cue for the direction is provided, as the motor memories that are made to counteract each push overwrite each other. Nozaki et al. used transcranial stimulation to alter the background electrical activity in the sensorimotor regions of the participants’ brains as they performed the robotic arm task. Artificially generating a different pattern of background brain electrical activity for each push direction caused the motor memories associated with leftward and rightward pushes to be tagged differently. Once this association had been learnt, applying the artificial brain stimulation pattern associated with one of the pushes resulted in the participants unconsciously compensating for a push in that direction, even when it was not there. Overall, the results presented by Nozaki et al. suggest that the background electrical activity seen in the brain can influence how a motor memory is created and later recalled. A future challenge is to investigate whether this technique could be used to help athletes improve their performance or to treat people with movement disorders. Further experiments are also needed to test whether the same approach can influence the formation and recollection of other kinds of memories, such as those related to fear. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.15378.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Daichi Nozaki
- Division of Physical and Health Education, Graduate School of Education, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Atsushi Yokoi
- The Brain and Mind Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.,Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Takahiro Kimura
- Research Institute, Kochi University of Technology, Kami City, Japan
| | - Masaya Hirashima
- Center for Information and Neural Networks, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, and Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry
- Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics, and Applied Mathematics, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium.,Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium.,Department of Kinesiology, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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17
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Hortensius R, de Gelder B, Schutter DJLG. When anger dominates the mind: Increased motor corticospinal excitability in the face of threat. Psychophysiology 2016; 53:1307-16. [PMID: 27325519 PMCID: PMC5113684 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Threat demands fast and adaptive reactions that are manifested at the physiological, behavioral, and phenomenological level and are responsive to the direction of threat and its severity for the individual. Here, we investigated the effects of threat directed toward or away from the observer on motor corticospinal excitability and explicit recognition. Sixteen healthy right‐handed volunteers completed a transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) task and a separate three‐alternative forced‐choice emotion recognition task. Single‐pulse TMS to the left primary motor cortex was applied to measure motor evoked potentials from the right abductor pollicis brevis in response to dynamic angry, fearful, and neutral bodily expressions with blurred faces directed toward or away from the observer. Results showed that motor corticospinal excitability increased independent of direction of anger compared with fear and neutral. In contrast, anger was better recognized when directed toward the observer compared with when directed away from the observer, while the opposite pattern was found for fear. The present results provide evidence for the differential effects of threat direction on explicit recognition and motor corticospinal excitability. In the face of threat, motor corticospinal excitability increases independently of the direction of anger, indicative of the importance of more automatic reactions to threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruud Hortensius
- Brain and Emotion Laboratory, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.,Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Tilburg School of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands.,Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Beatrice de Gelder
- Brain and Emotion Laboratory, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.,Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Dennis J L G Schutter
- Donders Institute of Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Kagerer F. Nondominant-to-dominant hand interference in bimanual movements is facilitated by gradual visuomotor perturbation. Neuroscience 2016; 318:94-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Hirano M, Kubota S, Tanabe S, Koizume Y, Funase K. Interactions Among Learning Stage, Retention, and Primary Motor Cortex Excitability in Motor Skill Learning. Brain Stimul 2015; 8:1195-204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2015.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Revised: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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20
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Hanajima R, Shadmehr R, Ohminami S, Tsutsumi R, Shirota Y, Shimizu T, Tanaka N, Terao Y, Tsuji S, Ugawa Y, Uchimura M, Inoue M, Kitazawa S. Modulation of error-sensitivity during a prism adaptation task in people with cerebellar degeneration. J Neurophysiol 2015; 114:2460-71. [PMID: 26311179 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00145.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar damage can profoundly impair human motor adaptation. For example, if reaching movements are perturbed abruptly, cerebellar damage impairs the ability to learn from the perturbation-induced errors. Interestingly, if the perturbation is imposed gradually over many trials, people with cerebellar damage may exhibit improved adaptation. However, this result is controversial, since the differential effects of gradual vs. abrupt protocols have not been observed in all studies. To examine this question, we recruited patients with pure cerebellar ataxia due to cerebellar cortical atrophy (n = 13) and asked them to reach to a target while viewing the scene through wedge prisms. The prisms were computer controlled, making it possible to impose the full perturbation abruptly in one trial, or build up the perturbation gradually over many trials. To control visual feedback, we employed shutter glasses that removed visual feedback during the reach, allowing us to measure trial-by-trial learning from error (termed error-sensitivity), and trial-by-trial decay of motor memory (termed forgetting). We found that the patients benefited significantly from the gradual protocol, improving their performance with respect to the abrupt protocol by exhibiting smaller errors during the exposure block, and producing larger aftereffects during the postexposure block. Trial-by-trial analysis suggested that this improvement was due to increased error-sensitivity in the gradual protocol. Therefore, cerebellar patients exhibited an improved ability to learn from error if they experienced those errors gradually. This improvement coincided with increased error-sensitivity and was present in both groups of subjects, suggesting that control of error-sensitivity may be spared despite cerebellar damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritsuko Hanajima
- Department of Neurology, University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Neurology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan;
| | - Reza Shadmehr
- Laboratory for Computational Motor Control, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; and
| | - Shinya Ohminami
- Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Tsutsumi
- Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Neurology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yuichiro Shirota
- Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takahiro Shimizu
- Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Tanaka
- Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yasuo Terao
- Department of Neurology, University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo, Japan; Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shoji Tsuji
- Department of Neurology, University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo, Japan; Division of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, the University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Ugawa
- Department of Neurology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Motoaki Uchimura
- Dynamic Brain Network Laboratory, Graduate School of Frontier Bioscience, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan; Department of Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masato Inoue
- Department of Neurophysiology, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shigeru Kitazawa
- Dynamic Brain Network Laboratory, Graduate School of Frontier Bioscience, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan; Department of Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan; Department of Neurophysiology, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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21
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Orban de Xivry JJ, Lefèvre P. Formation of model-free motor memories during motor adaptation depends on perturbation schedule. J Neurophysiol 2015; 113:2733-41. [PMID: 25673736 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00673.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor adaptation to an external perturbation relies on several mechanisms such as model-based, model-free, strategic, or repetition-dependent learning. Depending on the experimental conditions, each of these mechanisms has more or less weight in the final adaptation state. Here we focused on the conditions that lead to the formation of a model-free motor memory (Huang VS, Haith AM, Mazzoni P, Krakauer JW. Neuron 70: 787-801, 2011), i.e., a memory that does not depend on an internal model or on the size or direction of the errors experienced during the learning. The formation of such model-free motor memory was hypothesized to depend on the schedule of the perturbation (Orban de Xivry JJ, Ahmadi-Pajouh MA, Harran MD, Salimpour Y, Shadmehr R. J Neurophysiol 109: 124-136, 2013). Here we built on this observation by directly testing the nature of the motor memory after abrupt or gradual introduction of a visuomotor rotation, in an experimental paradigm where the presence of model-free motor memory can be identified (Huang VS, Haith AM, Mazzoni P, Krakauer JW. Neuron 70: 787-801, 2011). We found that relearning was faster after abrupt than gradual perturbation, which suggests that model-free learning is reduced during gradual adaptation to a visuomotor rotation. In addition, the presence of savings after abrupt introduction of the perturbation but gradual extinction of the motor memory suggests that unexpected errors are necessary to induce a model-free motor memory. Overall, these data support the hypothesis that different perturbation schedules do not lead to a more or less stabilized motor memory but to distinct motor memories with different attributes and neural representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry
- Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics and Applied Mathematics and Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium; and KU Leuven, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, Department of Kinesiology, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Philippe Lefèvre
- Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics and Applied Mathematics and Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium; and
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22
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Neef NE, Hoang TNL, Neef A, Paulus W, Sommer M. Speech dynamics are coded in the left motor cortex in fluent speakers but not in adults who stutter. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 138:712-25. [PMID: 25595146 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awu390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The precise excitability regulation of neuronal circuits in the primary motor cortex is central to the successful and fluent production of speech. Our question was whether the involuntary execution of undesirable movements, e.g. stuttering, is linked to an insufficient excitability tuning of neural populations in the orofacial region of the primary motor cortex. We determined the speech-related time course of excitability modulation in the left and right primary motor tongue representation. Thirteen fluent speakers (four females, nine males; aged 23-44) and 13 adults who stutter (four females, nine males, aged 21-55) were asked to build verbs with the verbal prefix 'auf'. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation was applied over the primary motor cortex during the transition phase between a fixed labiodental articulatory configuration and immediately following articulatory configurations, at different latencies after transition onset. Bilateral electromyography was recorded from self-adhesive electrodes placed on the surface of the tongue. Off-line, we extracted the motor evoked potential amplitudes and normalized these amplitudes to the individual baseline excitability during the fixed configuration. Fluent speakers demonstrated a prominent left hemisphere increase of motor cortex excitability in the transition phase (P = 0.009). In contrast, the excitability of the right primary motor tongue representation was unchanged. Interestingly, adults afflicted with stuttering revealed a lack of left-hemisphere facilitation. Moreover, the magnitude of facilitation was negatively correlated with stuttering frequency. Although orofacial midline muscles are bilaterally innervated from corticobulbar projections of both hemispheres, our results indicate that speech motor plans are controlled primarily in the left primary speech motor cortex. This speech motor planning-related asymmetry towards the left orofacial motor cortex is missing in stuttering. Moreover, a negative correlation between the amount of facilitation and stuttering severity suggests that we discovered a main physiological principle of fluent speech production and its role in stuttering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole E Neef
- 1 Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany 2 Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Department of Neuropsychology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - T N Linh Hoang
- 1 Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Neef
- 3 Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Department of Nonlinear Dynamics, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Walter Paulus
- 1 Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Martin Sommer
- 1 Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
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Functional modulation of corticospinal excitability with adaptation of wrist movements to novel dynamical environments. J Neurosci 2015; 34:12415-24. [PMID: 25209281 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2565-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Adaptation of reaching movements to a novel dynamic environment is associated with changes in neuronal activity in the primary motor cortex (M1), suggesting that M1 neurons are part of the internal model. Here, we investigated whether such changes in neuronal activity, resulting from motor adaptation, were also accompanied by changes in human corticospinal excitability, which reflects M1 activity at a macroscopic level. Participants moved a cursor on a display using the right wrist joint from the starting position toward one of eight equally spaced peripheral targets. Motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) were elicited from the wrist muscles by transcranial magnetic stimulation delivered over the left M1 before and after adaptation to a clockwise velocity-dependent force field. We found that the MEP elicited even during the preparatory period exhibited a directional tuning property, and that the preferred direction shifted clockwise after adaptation to the force field. In a subsequent experiment, participants simultaneously adapted an identical wrist movement to two opposing force fields, each of which was associated with unimanual or bimanual contexts, and the MEP during the preparatory period was flexibly modulated, depending on the context. In contrast, such modulation of the MEP was not observed when participants tried to adapt to two opposing force fields that were each associated with a target color. These results suggest that the internal model formed in the M1 is retrieved flexibly even during the preparatory period, and that the MEP could be a very useful probe for evaluating the formation and retrieval of motor memory.
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de Xivry JJO, Shadmehr R. Electrifying the motor engram: effects of tDCS on motor learning and control. Exp Brain Res 2014; 232:3379-95. [PMID: 25200178 PMCID: PMC4199902 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-014-4087-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Learning to control our movements is accompanied by neuroplasticity of motor areas of the brain. The mechanisms of neuroplasticity are diverse and produce what is referred to as the motor engram, i.e., the neural trace of the motor memory. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) alters the neural and behavioral correlates of motor learning, but its precise influence on the motor engram is unknown. In this review, we summarize the effects of tDCS on neural activity and suggest a few key principles: (1) Firing rates are increased by anodal polarization and decreased by cathodal polarization, (2) anodal polarization strengthens newly formed associations, and (3) polarization modulates the memory of new/preferred firing patterns. With these principles in mind, we review the effects of tDCS on motor control, motor learning, and clinical applications. The increased spontaneous and evoked firing rates may account for the modulation of dexterity in non-learning tasks by tDCS. The facilitation of new association may account for the effect of tDCS on learning in sequence tasks while the ability of tDCS to strengthen memories of new firing patterns may underlie the effect of tDCS on consolidation of skills. We then describe the mechanisms of neuroplasticity of motor cortical areas and how they might be influenced by tDCS. We end with current challenges for the fields of brain stimulation and motor learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Jacques Orban de Xivry
- Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics and Applied Mathematics (ICTEAM) and Institute of Neuroscience (IoNS), Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Reza Shadmehr
- Laboratory for Computational Motor Control, Department of Biomedical Engineering Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Rentsch S, Rand MK. Eye-hand coordination during visuomotor adaptation with different rotation angles. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109819. [PMID: 25333942 PMCID: PMC4198129 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined adaptive changes of eye-hand coordination during a visuomotor rotation task. Young adults made aiming movements to targets on a horizontal plane, while looking at the rotated feedback (cursor) of hand movements on a monitor. To vary the task difficulty, three rotation angles (30°, 75°, and 150°) were tested in three groups. All groups shortened hand movement time and trajectory length with practice. However, control strategies used were different among groups. The 30° group used proportionately more implicit adjustments of hand movements than other groups. The 75° group used more on-line feedback control, whereas the 150° group used explicit strategic adjustments. Regarding eye-hand coordination, timing of gaze shift to the target was gradually changed with practice from the late to early phase of hand movements in all groups, indicating an emerging gaze-anchoring behavior. Gaze locations prior to the gaze anchoring were also modified with practice from the cursor vicinity to an area between the starting position and the target. Reflecting various task difficulties, these changes occurred fastest in the 30° group, followed by the 75° group. The 150° group persisted in gazing at the cursor vicinity. These results suggest that the function of gaze control during visuomotor adaptation changes from a reactive control for exploring the relation between cursor and hand movements to a predictive control for guiding the hand to the task goal. That gaze-anchoring behavior emerged in all groups despite various control strategies indicates a generality of this adaptive pattern for eye-hand coordination in goal-directed actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Rentsch
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Dortmund, Germany
| | - Miya K Rand
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Dortmund, Germany
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Coxon JP, Peat NM, Byblow WD. Primary motor cortex disinhibition during motor skill learning. J Neurophysiol 2014; 112:156-64. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.00893.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor learning requires practice over a period of time and depends on brain plasticity, yet even for relatively simple movements, there are multiple practice strategies that can be used for skill acquisition. We investigated the role of intracortical inhibition in the primary motor cortex (M1) during motor skill learning. Event-related transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was used to assess corticomotor excitability and inhibition thought to involve synaptic and extrasynaptic γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Short intracortical inhibition (SICI) was assessed using 1- and 2.5-ms interstimulus intervals (ISIs). Participants learned a novel, sequential pinch-grip task on a computer in either a repetitive or interleaved practice structure. Both practice structures showed equivalent levels of motor performance at the end of acquisition and at retention 1 wk later. There was a novel task-related modulation of 1-ms SICI. Repetitive practice elicited a greater reduction of 1- and 2.5-ms SICI, i.e., disinhibition, between rest and task acquisition, compared with interleaved practice. These novel findings support the use of a repetitive practice structure for motor learning because the associated effects within M1 have relevance for motor rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P. Coxon
- Movement Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Sport & Exercise Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; and
- Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Nicola M. Peat
- Movement Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Sport & Exercise Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; and
| | - Winston D. Byblow
- Movement Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Sport & Exercise Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; and
- Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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Contributions of the cerebellum and the motor cortex to acquisition and retention of motor memories. Neuroimage 2014; 98:147-58. [PMID: 24816533 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.04.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the contributions of the cerebellum and the motor cortex (M1) to acquisition and retention of human motor memories in a force field reaching task. We found that anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the cerebellum, a technique that is thought to increase neuronal excitability, increased the ability to learn from error and form an internal model of the field, while cathodal cerebellar stimulation reduced this error-dependent learning. In addition, cathodal cerebellar stimulation disrupted the ability to respond to error within a reaching movement, reducing the gain of the sensory-motor feedback loop. By contrast, anodal M1 stimulation had no significant effects on these variables. During sham stimulation, early in training the acquired motor memory exhibited rapid decay in error-clamp trials. With further training the rate of decay decreased, suggesting that with training the motor memory was transformed from a labile to a more stable state. Surprisingly, neither cerebellar nor M1 stimulation altered these decay patterns. Participants returned 24hours later and were re-tested in error-clamp trials without stimulation. The cerebellar group that had learned the task with cathodal stimulation exhibited significantly impaired retention, and retention was not improved by M1 anodal stimulation. In summary, non-invasive cerebellar stimulation resulted in polarity-dependent up- or down-regulation of error-dependent motor learning. In addition, cathodal cerebellar stimulation during acquisition impaired the ability to retain the motor memory overnight. Thus, in the force field task we found a critical role for the cerebellum in both formation of motor memory and its retention.
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28
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Hussain SJ, Morton SM. Perturbation schedule does not alter retention of a locomotor adaptation across days. J Neurophysiol 2014; 111:2414-22. [PMID: 24647433 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00570.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor adaptation in response to gradual vs. abrupt perturbation schedules may involve different neural mechanisms, potentially leading to different levels of motor memory. However, no study has investigated whether perturbation schedules alter memory of a locomotor adaptation across days. We measured adaptation and retention (memory) of altered interlimb symmetry during walking in two groups of participants over 2 days. On day 1, participants adapted to either a single, large perturbation (abrupt schedule) or a series of small perturbations that increased in size over time (gradual schedule). Retention was examined on day 2. On day 1, initial swing time and foot placement symmetry error sizes differed between groups but overall adaptation magnitudes were similar. On day 2, participants in both groups showed similar retention, readaptation, and aftereffect sizes, although there were some trends for improved memory in the abrupt group. These results conflict with previous data but are consistent with newer studies reporting no behavioral differences following adaptation using abrupt vs. gradual schedules. Although memory levels were very similar between groups, we cannot rule out the possibility that the neural mechanisms underlying this memory storage differ. Overall, it appears that adaptation of locomotor patterns via abrupt and gradual perturbation schedules produces similar expression of locomotor memories across days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara J Hussain
- Department of Health and Human Physiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; and
| | - Susanne M Morton
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; and Department of Physical Therapy, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
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Habagishi C, Kasuga S, Otaka Y, Liu M, Ushiba J. Different strategy of hand choice after learning of constant and incremental dynamical perturbation in arm reaching. Front Hum Neurosci 2014; 8:92. [PMID: 24605097 PMCID: PMC3932483 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In daily life, we encounter situations where we must quickly decide which hand to use for a motor action. Here, we investigated whether the hand chosen for a motor action varied over a short timescale (i.e., hours) with changes in arm dynamics. Participants performed a reaching task in which they moved a specified hand to reach a target on a virtual reality display. During the task, a resistive viscous force field was abruptly applied to only the dominant hand (DH). To evaluate changes in hand choice caused by this perturbation, participants performed an interleaved choice test in which they could freely choose either hand for reaching. Furthermore, to investigate the effect of temporal changes on arm dynamics and hand choice, we exposed the same participants to another condition in which the force field was introduced gradually. When the abrupt force was applied, use of the perturbed hand significantly decreased and not changed during the training. In contrast, when the incremental force was applied, use of the perturbed hand gradually decreased as force increased. Surprisingly, even though the final amount of force was identical between the two conditions, hand choice was significantly biased toward the unperturbed hand in the gradual condition. These results suggest that time-varying changes in arm dynamics may have a greater influence on hand choice than the amplitude of the resistant force itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chie Habagishi
- Center for Biosciences and Informatics, School of Fundamental Science and Technology, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Keio University Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Shoko Kasuga
- Department of Biosciences and Informatics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yohei Otaka
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine Tokyo, Japan
| | - Meigen Liu
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine Tokyo, Japan
| | - Junichi Ushiba
- Department of Biosciences and Informatics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University Kanagawa, Japan ; Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Keio University School of Medicine Tokyo, Japan
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Buckingham G, Wong JD, Tang M, Gribble PL, Goodale MA. Observing object lifting errors modulates cortico-spinal excitability and improves object lifting performance. Cortex 2014; 50:115-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2013.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2013] [Revised: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Rapid feedback responses correlate with reach adaptation and properties of novel upper limb loads. J Neurosci 2013; 33:15903-14. [PMID: 24089496 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0263-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A hallmark of voluntary motor control is the ability to adjust motor patterns for novel mechanical or visuomotor contexts. Recent work has also highlighted the importance of feedback for voluntary control, leading to the hypothesis that feedback responses should adapt when we learn new motor skills. We tested this prediction with a novel paradigm requiring that human subjects adapt to a viscous elbow load while reaching to three targets. Target 1 required combined shoulder and elbow motion, target 2 required only elbow motion, and target 3 (probe target) required shoulder but no elbow motion. This simple approach controlled muscle activity at the probe target before, during, and after the application of novel elbow loads. Our paradigm allowed us to perturb the elbow during reaching movements to the probe target and identify several key properties of adapted stretch responses. Adapted long-latency responses expressed (de-) adaptation similar to reaching errors observed when we introduced (removed) the elbow load. Moreover, reaching errors during learning correlated with changes in the long-latency response, showing subjects who adapted more to the elbow load displayed greater modulation of their stretch responses. These adapted responses were sensitive to the size and direction of the viscous training load. Our results highlight an important link between the adaptation of feedforward and feedback control and suggest a key part of motor adaptation is to adjust feedback responses to the requirements of novel motor skills.
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