Similar properties of transient, persistent, and resurgent Na currents in GABAergic and non-GABAergic vestibular nucleus neurons

Perinatal development of central vestibular neurons in mice

Central circuitry of the vestibular nuclei integrates sensory inputs in the adaptive control of motor behaviors such as posture, locomotion, and gaze stabilization. Thus far, such circuits have been mostly examined at mature stages, whereas their emergence and early development have remained poorly described. Here, we focused on the perinatal period of murine development, from embryonic day E14.5 to post-natal day P5, to investigate the ontogeny of two functionally distinct vestibular neuronal groups, neurons projecting to the spinal cord via the lateral vestibulospinal tract (LVST) and commissural neurons of the medial vestibular nucleus that cross the midline to the contralateral nucleus. Using transgenic mice and retrograde labeling, we found that network-constitutive GABAergic and glycinergic neurons are already established in the two vestibular groups at embryonic stages. Although incapable of repetitive firing at E14.5, neurons of both groups can generate spike trains from E15.5 onward and diverge into previously established A or B subtypes according to the absence (A) or presence (B) of a two-stage spike after hyperpolarization. Investigation of several voltage-dependent membrane properties indicated that solely LVST neurons undergo significant maturational changes in their electrophysiological characteristics during perinatal development. The proportions of A vs B subtypes also evolve in both groups, with type A neurons remaining predominant at all stages, and type B commissural neurons appearing only post-natally. Together, our results indicate that vestibular neurons acquire their distinct morpho-functional identities after E14.5 and that the early maturation of membrane properties does not emerge uniformly in the different functional subpopulations of vestibulo-motor pathways.

Changes in Resurgent Sodium Current Contribute to the Hyperexcitability of Muscles in Patients with Paramyotonia Congenita

Paramyotonia congenita (PMC) is a rare hereditary skeletal muscle disorder. The major symptom, muscle stiffness, is frequently induced by cold exposure and repetitive exercise. Mutations in human SCN4A gene, which encodes the α-subunit of Na_v1.4 channel, are responsible for PMC. Mutation screening of SCN4A gene from two PMC families identified two missense mutations, p.T1313M and p.R1448H. To elucidate the electrophysiological abnormalities caused by the mutations, the p.T1313M, p.R1448H, and wild-type (WT) SCN4A genes were transient expressed on Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells. The detailed study on the gating defects of the mutant channels using the whole-cell patch clamping technique was performed. The mutant Na_v1.4 channels impaired the basic gating properties with increasing sustained and window currents during membrane depolarization and facilitated the genesis of resurgent currents during repolarization. The mutations caused a hyperpolarization shift in the fast inactivation and slightly enhanced the slow inactivation with an increase in half-maximal inactivation voltage. No differences were found in the decay kinetics of the tail current between mutant and WT channels. In addition to generating the larger resurgent sodium current, the time to peak in the mutant channels was longer than that in the WT channels. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that the mutations p.T1313M and p.R1448H in Na_v1.4 channels can enhance fast inactivation, slow inactivation, and resurgent current, revealing that subtle changes in gating processes can influence the clinical phenotype.

Persistent and resurgent Na+ currents in vestibular calyx afferents

Vestibular afferent neurons convey information from hair cells in the peripheral vestibular end organs to central nuclei. Primary vestibular afferent neurons can fire action potentials at high rates and afferent firing patterns vary with the position of nerve terminal endings in vestibular neuroepithelia. Terminals contact hair cells as small bouton or large calyx endings. To investigate the role of Na⁺ currents (I_Na) in firing mechanisms, we investigated biophysical properties of I_Na in calyx-bearing afferents. Whole cell patch-clamp recordings were made from calyx terminals in thin slices of gerbil crista at different postnatal ages: immature [postnatal day (P)5-P8, young (P13-P15), and mature (P30-P45)]. A large transient Na⁺ current (I_NaT) was completely blocked by 300 nM tetrodotoxin (TTX) in mature calyces. In addition, I_NaT was accompanied by much smaller persistent Na⁺ currents (I_NaP) and distinctive resurgent Na⁺ currents (I_NaR), which were also blocked by TTX. ATX-II, a toxin that slows Na⁺ channel inactivation, enhanced I_NaP in immature and mature calyces. 4,9-Anhydro-TTX (4,9-ah-TTX), which selectively blocks Nav1.6 channels, abolished the enhanced I_Na in mature, but not immature, calyces. Therefore, Nav1.6 channels mediate a component of I_NaT and I_NaP in mature calyces, but are minimally expressed at early postnatal days. I_NaR was expressed in less than one-third of calyces at P6-P8, but expression increased with development, and in mature cristae I_NaR was frequently found in peripheral calyces. I_NaR served to increase the availability of Na⁺ channels following brief membrane depolarizations. In current clamp, the rate and regularity of action potential firing decreased in mature peripheral calyces following 4,9-ah-TTX application. Therefore, Nav1.6 channels are upregulated during development, contribute to I_NaT, I_NaP, and I_NaR, and may regulate excitability by enabling higher mean discharge rates in a subpopulation of mature calyx afferents.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Action potential firing patterns differ between groups of afferent neurons innervating vestibular epithelia. We investigated the biophysical properties of Na⁺ currents in specialized vestibular calyx afferent terminals during postnatal development. Mature calyces express Na⁺ currents with transient, persistent, and resurgent components. Nav1.6 channels contribute to resurgent Na⁺ currents and may enhance firing in peripheral calyx afferents. Understanding Na⁺ channels that contribute to vestibular nerve responses has implications for developing new treatments for vestibular dysfunction.

Graded Coexpression of Ion Channel, Neurofilament, and Synaptic Genes in Fast-Spiking Vestibular Nucleus Neurons

Computations that require speed and temporal precision are implemented throughout the nervous system by neurons capable of firing at very high rates, rapidly encoding and transmitting a rich amount of information, but with substantial metabolic and physical costs. For economical fast spiking and high throughput information processing, neurons need to optimize multiple biophysical properties in parallel, but the mechanisms of this coordination remain unknown. We hypothesized that coordinated gene expression may underlie the coordinated tuning of the biophysical properties required for rapid firing and signal transmission. Taking advantage of the diversity of fast-spiking cell types in the medial vestibular nucleus of mice of both sexes, we examined the relationship between gene expression, ionic currents, and neuronal firing capacity. Across excitatory and inhibitory cell types, genes encoding voltage-gated ion channels responsible for depolarizing and repolarizing the action potential were tightly coexpressed, and their absolute expression levels increased with maximal firing rate. Remarkably, this coordinated gene expression extended to neurofilaments and specific presynaptic molecules, providing a mechanism for coregulating axon caliber and transmitter release to match firing capacity. These findings suggest the presence of a module of genes, which is coexpressed in a graded manner and jointly tunes multiple biophysical properties for economical differentiation of firing capacity. The graded tuning of fast-spiking capacity by the absolute expression levels of specific ion channels provides a counterexample to the widely held assumption that cell-type-specific firing patterns can be achieved via a vast combination of different ion channels.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Although essential roles of fast-spiking neurons in various neural circuits have been widely recognized, it remains unclear how neurons efficiently coordinate the multiple biophysical properties required to maintain high rates of action potential firing and transmitter release. Taking advantage of diverse fast-firing capacities among medial vestibular nucleus neurons of mice, we identify a group of ion channel, synaptic, and structural genes that exhibit mutually correlated expression levels, which covary with firing capacity. Coexpression of this fast-spiking gene module may be a basic strategy for neurons to efficiently and coordinately tune the speed of action potential generation and propagation and transmitter release at presynaptic terminals.

Histamine H1 Receptor Contributes to Vestibular Compensation

Vestibular compensation is responsible for the spontaneous recovery of postural, locomotor, and oculomotor dysfunctions in patients with peripheral vestibular lesion or posterior circulation stroke. Mechanism investigation of vestibular compensation is of great importance in both facilitating recovery of vestibular function and understanding the postlesion functional plasticity in the adult CNS. Here, we report that postsynaptic histamine H1 receptor contributes greatly to facilitating vestibular compensation. The expression of H1 receptor is restrictedly increased in the ipsilesional rather than contralesional GABAergic projection neurons in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN), one of the most important centers for vestibular compensation, in unilateral labyrinthectomized male rats. Furthermore, H1 receptor mediates an asymmetric excitation of the commissural GABAergic but not glutamatergic neurons in the ipsilesional MVN, which may help to rebalance bilateral vestibular systems and promote vestibular compensation. Selective blockage of H1 receptor in the MVN significantly retards the recovery of both static and dynamic vestibular symptoms following unilateral labyrinthectomy, and remarkably attenuates the facilitation of betahistine, whose effect has traditionally been attributed to its antagonistic action on the presynaptic H3 receptor, on vestibular compensation. These results reveal a previously unknown role for histamine H1 receptor in vestibular compensation and amelioration of vestibular motor deficits, as well as an involvement of H1 receptor in potential therapeutic effects of betahistine. The findings provide not only a new insight into the postlesion neuronal circuit plasticity and functional recovery in the CNS, but also a novel potential therapeutic target for vestibular disorders.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Vestibular disorders manifest postural imbalance, nystagmus, and vertigo. Vestibular compensation is critical for facilitating recovery from vestibular disorders, and of great importance in understanding the postlesion functional plasticity in the adult CNS. Here, we show that postsynaptic H1 receptor in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) contributes greatly to the recovery of both static and dynamic symptoms following unilateral vestibular lesion. H1 receptor selectively mediates the asymmetric activation of commissural inhibitory system in the ipsilesional MVN and actively promotes vestibular compensation. The findings provide not only a new insight into the postlesion neuronal circuit plasticity and functional recovery of CNS, but also a novel potential therapeutic target for promoting vestibular compensation and ameliorating vestibular disorders.

Postsynaptic mechanisms underlying the excitatory action of histamine on medial vestibular nucleus neurons in rats

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Anti-histaminergic drugs have been widely used in the clinical treatment of vestibular disorders and most studies concentrate on their presynaptic actions. The present study investigated the postsynaptic effect of histamine on medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) neurons and the underlying mechanisms.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Histamine-induced postsynaptic actions on MVN neurons and the corresponding receptor and ionic mechanisms were detected by whole-cell patch-clamp recordings on rat brain slices. The distribution of postsynaptic histamine H₁, H₂ and H₄ receptors was mapped by double and single immunostaining. Furthermore, the expression of mRNAs for H₁, H₂ and H₄ receptors and for subtypes of Na⁺ -Ca²⁺ exchangers (NCXs) and hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels was assessed by quantitative real-time RT-PCR.

KEY RESULTS

A marked postsynaptic excitatory effect, co-mediated by histamine H₁ and H₂ receptors, was involved in the histamine-induced depolarization of MVN neurons. Postsynaptic H₁ and H₂ rather than H₄ receptors were co-localized in the same MVN neurons. NCXs contributed to the inward current mediated by H₁ receptors, whereas HCN channels were responsible for excitation induced by activation of H₂ receptors. Moreover, NCX1 and NCX3 rather than NCX2, and HCN1 rather than HCN2-4 mRNAs, were abundantly expressed in MVN.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

NCXs coupled to H₁ receptors and HCN channels linked to H₂ receptors co-mediate the strong postsynaptic excitatory action of histamine on MVN neurons. These results highlight an active role of postsynaptic mechanisms in the modulation by central histaminergic systems of vestibular functions and suggest potential targets for clinical treatment of vestibular disorders.

Resurgent current of voltage-gated Na(+) channels

Resurgent Na(+) current results from a distinctive form of Na(+) channel gating, originally identified in cerebellar Purkinje neurons. In these neurons, the tetrodotoxin-sensitive voltage-gated Na(+) channels responsible for action potential firing have specialized mechanisms that reduce the likelihood that they accumulate in fast inactivated states, thereby shortening refractory periods and permitting rapid, repetitive, and/or burst firing. Under voltage clamp, step depolarizations evoke transient Na(+) currents that rapidly activate and quickly decay, and step repolarizations elicit slower channel reopening, or a 'resurgent' current. The generation of resurgent current depends on a factor in the Na(+) channel complex, probably a subunit such as NaVβ4 (Scn4b), which blocks open Na(+) channels at positive voltages, competing with the fast inactivation gate, and unblocks at negative voltages, permitting recovery from an open channel block along with a flow of current. Following its initial discovery, resurgent Na(+) current has been found in nearly 20 types of neurons. Emerging research suggests that resurgent current is preferentially increased in a variety of clinical conditions associated with altered cellular excitability. Here we review the biophysical, molecular and structural mechanisms of resurgent current and their relation to the normal functions of excitable cells as well as pathophysiology.

Tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channels in sensory neurons generate slow resurgent currents that are enhanced by inflammatory mediators

Resurgent sodium currents contribute to the regeneration of action potentials and enhanced neuronal excitability. Tetrodotoxin-sensitive (TTX-S) resurgent currents have been described in many different neuron populations, including cerebellar and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons. In most cases, sodium channel Nav1.6 is the major contributor to these TTX-S resurgent currents. Here we report a novel TTX-resistant (TTX-R) resurgent current recorded from rat DRG neurons. The TTX-R resurgent currents are similar to classic TTX-S resurgent currents in many respects, but not all. As with TTX-S resurgent currents, they are activated by membrane repolarization, inhibited by lidocaine, and enhanced by a peptide-mimetic of the β4 sodium channel subunit intracellular domain. However, the TTX-R resurgent currents exhibit much slower kinetics, occur at more depolarized voltages, and are sensitive to the Nav1.8 blocker A803467. Moreover, coimmunoprecipitation experiments from rat DRG lysates indicate the endogenous sodium channel β4 subunits associate with Nav1.8 in DRG neurons. These results suggest that slow TTX-R resurgent currents in DRG neurons are mediated by Nav1.8 and are generated by the same mechanism underlying TTX-S resurgent currents. We also show that both TTX-S and TTX-R resurgent currents in DRG neurons are enhanced by inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, the β4 peptide increased excitability of small DRG neurons in the presence of TTX. We propose that these slow TTX-R resurgent currents contribute to the membrane excitability of nociceptive DRG neurons under normal conditions and that enhancement of both types of resurgent currents by inflammatory mediators could contribute to sensory neuronal hyperexcitability associated with inflammatory pain.

Antagonism of lidocaine inhibition by open-channel blockers that generate resurgent Na current

Na channels that generate resurgent current express an intracellular endogenous open-channel blocking protein, whose rapid binding upon depolarization and unbinding upon repolarization minimizes fast and slow inactivation. Na channels also bind exogenous compounds, such as lidocaine, which functionally stabilize inactivation. Like the endogenous blocking protein, these use-dependent inhibitors bind most effectively at depolarized potentials, raising the question of how lidocaine-like compounds affect neurons with resurgent Na current. We therefore recorded lidocaine inhibition of voltage-clamped, tetrodotoxin-sensitive Na currents in mouse Purkinje neurons, which express a native blocking protein, and in mouse hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons with and without a peptide from the cytoplasmic tail of NaVβ4 (the β4 peptide), which mimics endogenous open-channel block. To control channel states during drug exposure, lidocaine was applied with rapid-solution exchange techniques during steps to specific voltages. Inhibition of Na currents by lidocaine was diminished by either the β4 peptide or the native blocking protein. In peptide-free CA3 cells, prolonging channel opening with a site-3 toxin, anemone toxin II, reduced lidocaine inhibition; this effect was largely occluded by open-channel blockers, suggesting that lidocaine binding is favored by inactivation but prevented by open-channel block. In constant 100 μm lidocaine, current-clamped Purkinje cells continued to fire spontaneously. Similarly, the β4 peptide reduced lidocaine-dependent suppression of spiking in CA3 neurons in slices. Thus, the open-channel blocking protein responsible for resurgent current acts as a natural antagonist of lidocaine. Neurons with resurgent current may therefore be less susceptible to use-dependent Na channel inhibitors used as local anesthetic, antiarrhythmic, and anticonvulsant drugs.

The Hodgkin-Huxley heritage: from channels to circuits

The Hodgkin-Huxley studies of the action potential, published 60 years ago, are a central pillar of modern neuroscience research, ranging from molecular investigations of the structural basis of ion channel function to the computational implications at circuit level. In this Symposium Review, we aim to demonstrate the ongoing impact of Hodgkin's and Huxley's ideas. The Hodgkin-Huxley model established a framework in which to describe the structural and functional properties of ion channels, including the mechanisms of ion permeation, selectivity, and gating. At a cellular level, the model is used to understand the conditions that control both the rate and timing of action potentials, essential for neural encoding of information. Finally, the Hodgkin-Huxley formalism is central to computational neuroscience to understand both neuronal integration and circuit level information processing, and how these mechanisms might have evolved to minimize energy cost.

Resurgent-like currents in mouse vas deferens myocytes are mediated by NaV1.6 voltage-gated sodium channels

Patch-clamp experiments were performed to investigate the molecular properties of resurgent-like currents in single smooth muscle cells dispersed from mouse vas deferens, utilizing both Na(V)1.6-null mice (Na(V)1.6(-/-)), lacking the expression of the Scn8a Na(+) channel gene, and their wild-type littermates (Na(V)1.6(+/+)). Na(V)1.6 immunoreactivity was clearly visible in dispersed smooth muscle cells obtained from Na(V)1.6(+/+), but not Na(V)1.6(-/-), vas deferens. Following a depolarization to +30 mV from a holding potential of -70 mV (to produce maximal inactivation of the Na(+) current), repolarization to voltages between -60 and +20 mV elicited a tetrodotoxin (TTX)-sensitive inward current in Na(V)1.6(+/+), but not Na(V)1.6(-/-), vas deferens myocytes. The resurgent-like current in Na(V)1.6(+/+) vas deferens myocytes peaked at approximately -20 mV in the current-voltage relationship. The peak amplitude of the resurgent-like current remained at a constant level when the membrane potential was repolarized to -20 mV following the application of depolarizing rectangular pulses to more positive potentials than +20 mV. 4,9-Anhydrotetrodotoxin (4,9-anhydroTTX), a selective Na(V)1.6 blocking toxin, purified from a crude mixture of TTX analogues by LC-FLD techniques, reversibly suppressed the resurgent-like currents. β-Pompilidotoxin, a voltage-gated Na(+) channel activator, evoked sustained resurgent-like currents in Na(V)1.6(+/+) but not Na(V)1.6(-/-) murine vas deferens myocytes. These results strongly indicate that, primarily, resurgent-like currents are generated as a result of Na(V)1.6 channel activity.

Diverse precerebellar neurons share similar intrinsic excitability

The cerebellum dedicates a majority of the brain's neurons to processing a wide range of sensory, motor, and cognitive signals. Stereotyped circuitry within the cerebellar cortex suggests that similar computations are performed throughout the cerebellum, but little is known about whether diverse precerebellar neurons are specialized for the nature of the information they convey. In vivo recordings indicate that firing responses to sensory or motor stimuli vary dramatically across different precerebellar nuclei, but whether this reflects diverse synaptic inputs or differentially tuned intrinsic excitability has not been determined. We targeted whole-cell patch-clamp recordings to neurons in eight precerebellar nuclei which were retrogradely labeled from different regions of the cerebellum in mice. Intrinsic physiology was compared across neurons in the medial vestibular, external cuneate, lateral reticular, prepositus hypoglossi, supragenual, Roller/intercalatus, reticularis tegmenti pontis, and pontine nuclei. Within the firing domain, precerebellar neurons were remarkably similar. Firing faithfully followed temporally modulated inputs, could be sustained at high rates, and was a linear function of input current over a wide range of inputs and firing rates. Pharmacological analyses revealed common expression of Kv3 currents, which were essential for a wide linear firing range, and of SK (small-conductance calcium-activated potassium) currents, which were essential for a wide linear input range. In contrast, membrane properties below spike threshold varied considerably within and across precerebellar nuclei, as evidenced by variability in postinhibitory rebound firing. Our findings indicate that diverse precerebellar neurons perform similar scaling computations on their inputs but may be differentially tuned to synaptic inhibition.

Cross-species conservation of open-channel block by Na channel β4 peptides reveals structural features required for resurgent Na current

Voltage-gated Na channels in many neurons, including several in the cerebellum and brainstem, are specialized to allow rapid firing of action potentials. Repetitive firing is facilitated by resurgent Na current, which flows upon repolarization as Na channels recover through open states from block by an endogenous protein. The best candidate blocking protein to date is Na(V)β4. The sequence of this protein diverges among species, however, while high-frequency firing is maintained, raising the question of whether the proposed blocking action of the Na(V)β4 cytoplasmic tail has been conserved. Here, we find that, despite differences in the Na(V)β4 sequence, Purkinje cells isolated from embryonic chick have resurgent currents with kinetics and amplitudes indistinguishable from those in mouse Purkinje cells. Furthermore, synthetic peptides derived from the divergent Na(V)β4 cytoplasmic tails from five species have the capacity to induce resurgent current in mouse hippocampal neurons, which lack a functional endogenous blocking protein. These data further support a blocking role for Na(V)β4 and also indicate the relative importance of different residues in inducing open-channel block. To investigate the contribution of the few highly conserved residues to open-channel block, we synthesized several mutant peptides in which the identities and relative orientations of a phenylalanine and two lysines were disrupted. These mutant peptides produced currents with vastly different kinetics than did the species-derived peptides, suggesting that these residues are required for an open-channel block that approximates physiological resurgent Na current. Thus, if other blocking proteins exist, they may share these structural elements with the Na(V)β4 cytoplasmic tail.

Molecular and functional differences in voltage-activated sodium currents between GABA projection neurons and dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra

GABA projection neurons (GABA neurons) in the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) and dopamine projection neurons (DA neurons) in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) have strikingly different firing properties. SNc DA neurons fire low-frequency, long-duration spikes, whereas SNr GABA neurons fire high-frequency, short-duration spikes. Since voltage-activated sodium (Na(V)) channels are critical to spike generation, the different firing properties raise the possibility that, compared with DA neurons, Na(V) channels in SNr GABA neurons have higher density, faster kinetics, and less cumulative inactivation. Our quantitative RT-PCR analysis on immunohistochemically identified nigral neurons indicated that mRNAs for pore-forming Na(V)1.1 and Na(V)1.6 subunits and regulatory Na(V)β1 and Na(v)β4 subunits are more abundant in SNr GABA neurons than SNc DA neurons. These α-subunits and β-subunits are key subunits for forming Na(V) channels conducting the transient Na(V) current (I(NaT)), persistent Na current (I(NaP)), and resurgent Na current (I(NaR)). Nucleated patch-clamp recordings showed that I(NaT) had a higher density, a steeper voltage-dependent activation, and a faster deactivation in SNr GABA neurons than in SNc DA neurons. I(NaT) also recovered more quickly from inactivation and had less cumulative inactivation in SNr GABA neurons than in SNc DA neurons. Furthermore, compared with nigral DA neurons, SNr GABA neurons had a larger I(NaR) and I(NaP). Blockade of I(NaP) induced a larger hyperpolarization in SNr GABA neurons than in SNc DA neurons. Taken together, these results indicate that Na(V) channels expressed in fast-spiking SNr GABA neurons and slow-spiking SNc DA neurons are tailored to support their different spiking capabilities.

Intrinsic physiology of identified neurons in the prepositus hypoglossi and medial vestibular nuclei

Signal processing in the vestibular system is influenced by the intrinsic physiological properties of neurons that differ in neurotransmitters and circuit connections. Do membrane and firing properties differ across functionally distinct cell types? This study examines the intrinsic physiology of neurons in the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) and nucleus prepositus hypoglossi (NPH) which express different neurotransmitters and have distinct axonal projections. NPH neurons expressing fluorescent proteins in glutamatergic, glycinergic, or GABAergic neurons were targeted for whole-cell patch recordings in brainstem slices obtained from transgenic mouse lines (YFP-16, GlyT2, and GIN). Recordings from MVN neurons projecting to the spinal cord, reticular formation, or oculomotor nucleus were obtained by targeting fluorescent neurons retrogradely labeled from tracer injections. Intrinsic physiological properties of identified neurons exhibited continuous variations but tended to differ between functionally defined cell types. Within the NPH, YFP-16 neurons had the narrowest action potentials and highest evoked firing rates and expressed high levels of Kv3.3 proteins, which speed repolarization. MVN neurons projecting to the spinal cord and oculomotor nucleus had similar action potential waveforms, but oculomotor-projecting neurons had higher intrinsic gains than those projecting to the spinal cord. These results indicate that intrinsic membrane properties are differentially tuned in MVN and NPH neurons subserving different functions.

Resurgent Na+ current: a new avenue to neuronal excitability control

Integrative and firing properties are important characteristics of neuronal circuits and these responses are determined in large part by the repertoire of ion channels they express, which can vary considerably between cell types. Recently, a new mode of operation of voltage dependent sodium channels has been described that generates a so-called resurgent Na+ current. Accumulating evidence suggests resurgent Na current participates in the generation of sub-threshold inward Na+ current causing membrane depolarization which provides the necessary drive to fire high-frequency action potentials. Recent studies indicate that resurgent Na+ current could be a more widespread feature than previously thought.

Intrinsic membrane properties of central vestibular neurons in rodents

Numerous studies in rodents have shown that the functional efficacy of several neurotransmitter receptors and the intrinsic membrane excitability of central vestibular neurons, as well as the organization of synaptic connections within and between vestibular nuclei can be modified during postnatal development, after a lesion of peripheral vestibular organs or in vestibular-deficient mutant animals. This review mainly focuses on the intrinsic membrane properties of neurons of the medial vestibular nuclei of rodents, their postnatal maturation, and changes following experimental or congenital alterations in vestibular inputs. It also presents the concomitant modifications in the distribution of these neurons into different neuron types, which has been based on their membrane properties in relation to their anatomical, biochemical, or functional properties. The main points discussed in this review are that (1) the intrinsic membrane properties can be used to distinguish between two dominant types of neurons, (2) the system remains plastic throughout the whole life of the animal, and finally, (3) the intracellular calcium concentration has a major effect on the intrinsic membrane properties of central vestibular neurons.

Presynaptic resurgent Na+ currents sculpt the action potential waveform and increase firing reliability at a CNS nerve terminal

Axonal and nerve terminal action potentials often display a depolarizing after potential (DAP). However, the underlying mechanism that generates the DAP, and its impact on firing patterns, are poorly understood at axon terminals. Here, we find that at calyx of Held nerve terminals in the rat auditory brainstem the DAP is blocked by low doses of externally applied TTX or by the internal dialysis of low doses of lidocaine analog QX-314. The DAP is thus generated by a voltage-dependent Na(+) conductance present after the action potential spike. Voltage-clamp recordings from the calyx terminal revealed the expression of a resurgent Na(+) current (I(NaR)), the amplitude of which increased during early postnatal development. The calyx of Held also expresses a persistent Na(+) current (I(NaP)), but measurements of calyx I(NaP) together with computer modeling indicate that the fast deactivation time constant of I(NaP) minimizes its contribution to the DAP. I(NaP) is thus neither sufficient nor necessary to generate the calyx DAP, whereas I(NaR) by itself can generate a prominent DAP. Dialysis of a small peptide fragment of the auxiliary β4 Na(+) channel subunit into immature calyces (postnatal day 5-6) induced an increase in I(NaR) and a larger DAP amplitude, and enhanced the spike-firing precision and reliability of the calyx terminal. Our results thus suggest that an increase of I(NaR) during postnatal synaptic maturation is a critical feature that promotes precise and resilient high-frequency firing.

Synaptic plasticity in medial vestibular nucleus neurons: comparison with computational requirements of VOR adaptation

BACKGROUND

Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) gain adaptation, a longstanding experimental model of cerebellar learning, utilizes sites of plasticity in both cerebellar cortex and brainstem. However, the mechanisms by which the activity of cortical Purkinje cells may guide synaptic plasticity in brainstem vestibular neurons are unclear. Theoretical analyses indicate that vestibular plasticity should depend upon the correlation between Purkinje cell and vestibular afferent inputs, so that, in gain-down learning for example, increased cortical activity should induce long-term depression (LTD) at vestibular synapses.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Here we expressed this correlational learning rule in its simplest form, as an anti-Hebbian, heterosynaptic spike-timing dependent plasticity interaction between excitatory (vestibular) and inhibitory (floccular) inputs converging on medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) neurons (input-spike-timing dependent plasticity, iSTDP). To test this rule, we stimulated vestibular afferents to evoke EPSCs in rat MVN neurons in vitro. Control EPSC recordings were followed by an induction protocol where membrane hyperpolarizing pulses, mimicking IPSPs evoked by flocculus inputs, were paired with single vestibular nerve stimuli. A robust LTD developed at vestibular synapses when the afferent EPSPs coincided with membrane hyperpolarization, while EPSPs occurring before or after the simulated IPSPs induced no lasting change. Furthermore, the iSTDP rule also successfully predicted the effects of a complex protocol using EPSP trains designed to mimic classical conditioning.

CONCLUSIONS

These results, in strong support of theoretical predictions, suggest that the cerebellum alters the strength of vestibular synapses on MVN neurons through hetero-synaptic, anti-Hebbian iSTDP. Since the iSTDP rule does not depend on post-synaptic firing, it suggests a possible mechanism for VOR adaptation without compromising gaze-holding and VOR performance in vivo.

Mechanisms of sustained high firing rates in two classes of vestibular nucleus neurons: differential contributions of resurgent Na, Kv3, and BK currents

To fire at high rates, neurons express ionic currents that work together to minimize refractory periods by ensuring that sodium channels are available for activation shortly after each action potential. Vestibular nucleus neurons operate around high baseline firing rates and encode information with bidirectional modulation of firing rates up to several hundred Hz. To determine the mechanisms that enable these neurons to sustain firing at high rates, ionic currents were measured during firing by using the action potential clamp technique in vestibular nucleus neurons acutely dissociated from transgenic mice. Although neurons from the YFP-16 line fire at rates higher than those from the GIN line, both classes of neurons express Kv3 and BK currents as well as both transient and resurgent Na currents. In the fastest firing neurons, Kv3 currents dominated repolarization at all firing rates and minimized Na channel inactivation by rapidly transitioning Na channels from the open to the closed state. In slower firing neurons, BK currents dominated repolarization at the highest firing rates and sodium channel availability was protected by a resurgent blocking mechanism. Quantitative differences in Kv3 current density across neurons and qualitative differences in immunohistochemically detected expression of Kv3 subunits could account for the difference in firing range within and across cell classes. These results demonstrate how divergent firing properties of two neuronal populations arise through the interplay of at least three ionic currents.

Control of transient, resurgent, and persistent current by open-channel block by Na channel beta4 in cultured cerebellar granule neurons

Voltage-gated Na channels in several classes of neurons, including cells of the cerebellum, are subject to an open-channel block and unblock by an endogenous protein. The Na(V)beta4 (Scn4b) subunit is a candidate blocking protein because a free peptide from its cytoplasmic tail, the beta4 peptide, can block open Na channels and induce resurgent current as channels unblock upon repolarization. In heterologous expression systems, however, Na(V)beta4 fails to produce resurgent current. We therefore tested the necessity of this subunit in generating resurgent current, as well as its influence on Na channel gating and action potential firing, by studying cultured cerebellar granule neurons treated with siRNA targeted against Scn4b. Knockdown of Scn4b, confirmed with quantitative RT-PCR, led to five electrophysiological phenotypes: a loss of resurgent current, a reduction of persistent current, a hyperpolarized half-inactivation voltage of transient current, a higher rheobase, and a decrease in repetitive firing. All disruptions of Na currents and firing were rescued by the beta4 peptide. The simplest interpretation is that Na(V)beta4 itself blocks Na channels of granule cells, making this subunit the first blocking protein that is responsible for resurgent current. The results also demonstrate that a known open-channel blocking peptide not only permits a rapid recovery from nonconducting states upon repolarization from positive voltages but also increases Na channel availability at negative potentials by antagonizing fast inactivation. Thus, Na(V)beta4 expression determines multiple aspects of Na channel gating, thereby regulating excitability in cultured cerebellar granule cells.

Estradiol attenuates multiple tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium currents in isolated gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons

Secretion from gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons is necessary for the production of gametes and hormones from the gonads. Subsequently, GnRH release is regulated by steroid feedback. However, the mechanisms by which steroids, specifically estradiol, modulate GnRH secretion are poorly understood. We have previously shown that estradiol administered to the female mouse decreases inward currents in fluorescently labeled GnRH neurons. The purpose of this study was to examine the contribution of sodium currents in the negative feedback action of estradiol. Electrophysiology was performed on GnRH neurons dissociated from young, middle-aged, or old female mice. All mice were ovariectomized; half were estradiol replaced. The amplitude of the sodium current underlying the action potential was significantly decreased in GnRH neurons from young estradiol-treated animals. In addition, in vivo estradiol significantly decreased the transient sodium current amplitude, but prolonged the sodium current inactivation time constant. Estradiol decreased the persistent sodium current amplitude, and induced a significant negative shift in peak current potential. In contrast to results obtained from cells from young reproductive animals, estradiol did not significantly attenuate the sodium current underlying the action potential in cells isolated from middle-aged or old mice. Sodium channels can modulate cell threshold, latency of firing, and action potential characteristics. The reduction of sodium current amplitude by estradiol suggests a negative feedback on GnRH neurons, which could lead to a downregulation of cell excitability and hormone release. The attenuation of estradiol regulation in peripostreproductive and postreproductive animals could lead to dysregulated hormone release with advancing age.

Sodium channels gone wild: resurgent current from neuronal and muscle channelopathies

Voltage-dependent sodium channels are the central players in the excitability of neurons, cardiac muscle, and skeletal muscle. Hundreds of mutations in sodium channels have been associated with human disease, particularly genetic forms of epilepsy, arrhythmias, myotonia, and periodic paralysis. In this issue of the JCI, Jarecki and colleagues present evidence suggesting that many such mutations alter the gating of sodium channels to produce resurgent sodium current, an unusual form of gating in which sodium channels reopen following an action potential, thus promoting the firing of another action potential (see the related article beginning on page 369). The results of this study suggest a widespread pathophysiological role for this mechanism, previously described to occur normally in only a few types of neurons.

Differential dynamic processing of afferent signals in frog tonic and phasic second-order vestibular neurons

The sensory-motor transformation of the large dynamic spectrum of head-motion-related signals occurs in separate vestibulo-ocular pathways. Synaptic responses of tonic and phasic second-order vestibular neurons were recorded in isolated frog brains after stimulation of individual labyrinthine nerve branches with trains of single electrical pulses. The timing of the single pulses was adapted from spike discharge patterns of frog semicircular canal nerve afferents during sinusoidal head rotation. Because each electrical pulse evoked a single spike in afferent fibers, the resulting sequences with sinusoidally modulated intervals and peak frequencies up to 100 Hz allowed studying the processing of presynaptic afferent inputs with in vivo characteristics in second-order vestibular neurons recorded in vitro in an isolated whole brain. Variation of pulse-train parameters showed that the postsynaptic compound response dynamics differ in the two types of frog vestibular neurons. In tonic neurons, subthreshold compound responses and evoked discharge patterns exhibited relatively linear dynamics and were generally aligned with pulse frequency modulation. In contrast, compound responses of phasic neurons were asymmetric with large leads of subthreshold response peaks and evoked spike discharge relative to stimulus waveform. These nonlinearities were caused by the particular intrinsic properties of phasic vestibular neurons and were facilitated by GABAergic and glycinergic inhibitory inputs from tonic type vestibular interneurons and by cerebellar circuits. Coadapted intrinsic filter and emerging network properties thus form dynamically different neuronal elements that provide the appropriate cellular basis for a parallel processing of linear, tonic, and nonlinear phasic vestibulo-ocular response components in central vestibular neurons.