EXCITATION OF EXTENSOR MOTONEURONS BY GROUP II AFFERENT FIBERS IN IPSILATERAL MUSCLE NERVES

Is the Frequency in Somatosensory Electrical Stimulation the Key Parameter in Modulating the Corticospinal Excitability of Healthy Volunteers and Stroke Patients with Spasticity?

Somatosensory electrical stimulation (SES) has been proposed as an approach to treat patients with sensory-motor impairment such as spasticity. However, there is still no consensus regarding which would be the adequate SES parameters to treat those deficits. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of applying SES over the forearm muscles at four different frequencies of stimulation (3, 30, 150, and 300 Hz) and in two intervals of time (5′ and 30′) by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation and Hoffmann's reflex (H-reflex) in healthy volunteers (Experiments  I and II). A group of stroke patients (Experiment  III) was also preliminary evaluated to ascertain SES effects at a low frequency (3 Hz) applied for 30′ over the forearm spastic flexors muscles by measuring the wrist joint passive torque. Motor evoked potentials and the H-reflex were collected from different forearm and hand muscles immediately before and after SES and up to 5′ (Experiment  I) and 10′ (Experiments  I and II) later. None of the investigated frequencies of SES was able to operate as a key in switching modulatory effects in the central nervous system of healthy volunteers and stroke patients with spasticity.

Reflex transmission to lumbar α-motoneurones in the mouse similar and different to those in the cat

Investigation and interpretation of defective motor circuitries in transgenic mice required further basic results from wild-type mice. Therefore, we investigated the lumbar motor reflex pattern in anaesthetised mice using intracellular motoneuronal recording and monosynaptic reflex testing. Thresholds and latencies in mice were similar to those in cats: thresholds for monosynaptic (group I) EPSPs were slightly above 1T (T=threshold for the lowest threshold fibres), around 1.5T for group II EPSPs and above 10T for group III EPSPs; group I EPSPs were maximal with a stimulus strength around 2T, group II EPSPs were maximal with 5-8T; latencies to the group I incoming volley were below 1ms for monosynaptic group I EPSPs, around 3ms for polysynaptic group II EPSPs and above 4ms for polysynaptic group III EPSPs. In contrast to reflex actions in the cat, monosynaptic gastrocnemius-soleus reflexes were facilitated by conditioning stimulation of the peroneal, sural and tibial nerves, i.e. by a variety of different, probably flexor reflex afferents. This facilitation persisted after high lumbar spinalisation indicating an independency to supraspinal influences. Nociceptive muscle afferents facilitated the peroneal monosynaptic reflex while nociceptive cutaneous afferents from the foot sole inhibited the ipsilateral but facilitated the contralateral peroneal reflex.

Functional subdivision of feline spinal interneurons in reflex pathways from group Ib and II muscle afferents; an update

A first step towards understanding the operation of a neural network is identification of the populations of neurons that contribute to it. Our aim here is to reassess the basis for subdivision of adult mammalian spinal interneurons that mediate reflex actions from tendon organs (group Ib afferents) and muscle spindle secondary endings (group II afferents) into separate populations. Re-examining the existing experimental data, we find no compelling reasons to consider intermediate zone interneurons with input from group Ib afferents to be distinct from those co-excited by group II afferents. Similar patterns of distributed input have been found in subpopulations that project ipsilaterally, contralaterally or bilaterally, and in both excitatory and inhibitory interneurons; differences in input from group I and II afferents to individual interneurons showed intra- rather than inter-population variation. Patterns of reflex actions evoked from group Ib and II afferents and task-dependent changes in these actions, e.g. during locomotion, may likewise be compatible with mediation by premotor interneurons integrating information from both group I and II afferents. Pathological changes after injuries of the central nervous system in humans and the lineage of different subclasses of embryonic interneurons may therefore be analyzed without need to consider subdivision of adult intermediate zone interneurons into subpopulations with group Ib or group II input. We propose renaming these neurons 'group I/II interneurons'.

Intracellular autogenetic and synergistic effects of muscular contraction on flexor motoneurones

1. Intracellular records have been taken from cat motoneurones innervating flexor muscles of the hind limb. Contractions of the ankle flexors tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus were elicited by stimulation of the peripheral end of the cut L 7 ventral root and the reflex effects of these contractions were recorded in silent and repetitively firing motoneurones.2. Contraction usually produces a hyperpolarizing response inside flexor motoneurones. This hyperpolarization is tension-sensitive in the sense that when, at constant muscle extension, the strength of the contraction is increased, the magnitude of the inhibitory response is augmented.3. Increasing the resting length of the muscles, while using a stimulus of constant strength to the ventral root, causes this inhibitory response to increase in some cells. More often, however, the hyperpolarization caused by contraction is gradually reduced in duration and/or amplitude as the muscles are extended.4. Even with the muscles slackened, so that they develop no tension at their ends, contraction usually produces prominent hyperpolarization of the motoneurones.5. By passing polarizing currents or injecting chloride ions through the intracellular micro-electrode, the hyperpolarizing potentials produced by contraction of the slack and extended muscles are shown to be, at least in part, genuinely post-synaptic inhibitory events.6. When the neurone is fired repetitively by injected current, the ;silent period' in contraction corresponds to the hyperpolarization of the post-synaptic membrane.7. Monosynaptic testing of the flexor motoneurone pool has been used to confirm the essential features of the intracellularly recorded activity.8. Acutely spinalizing the animal increases the magnitude of the inhibitory responses caused by contraction.9. Recordings from dorsal root fibres show that Golgi tendon organs of the ankle flexors are very sensitive to contraction and are indeed often activated by the internal forces developed in a contracting slack muscle.10. A number of muscle spindles of the ankle flexors are activated by stimulation of the ventral root at a strength submaximal or just maximal for the alpha-motor fibres, despite the simultaneous unloading effect of the contracting extrafusal fibres. This spindle activation, which occurs mainly during the phase of tension development in contraction, is favoured by an increased extension of the muscle. Attempts were made to establish whether it is due to alpha-motor innervation of the receptors or to some mechanical interaction between the intra- and extrafusal muscle fibres.11. The possible central and peripheral causes of the changes in motoneurone excitability produced by flexor muscle contraction are discussed. It is suggested that tendon organs of flexor muscles strongly inhibit flexor motoneurones and that alpha-motor innervation of muscle spindles is likely to play a more prominent role in flexors than in extensor muscles.

Spinal interneurones; how can studies in animals contribute to the understanding of spinal interneuronal systems in man?

The first part of this review deals with arguments that the essential properties and organization of spinal interneuronal systems in the cat and in man are similar. The second part is concerned with the possibility that some interneuronal systems may be responsible for motor disturbances caused by spinal cord injuries and that these interneurones may be defined. This possibility is discussed with respect to the hyperexcitability of alpha-motoneurones and the exaggeration of stretch reflexes in spastic patients. To this end, what is known about cat spinal interneurones and about the neuronal basis and pharmacological treatment of spasticity, is put together. Interneurones in di- and trisynaptic reflex pathways from group II muscle afferents are singled out, since they are depressed by the alpha(2) noradrenaline receptor agonists clonidine and tizanidine, which is a critical feature of interneurones expected to contribute to exaggerated stretch reflexes which are reduced by alpha(2) noradrenaline receptor agonists. Recent observations that reflex excitation of extensor motoneurones from group II afferents is enhanced in spastic patients and that the pathologically strong reflex actions of group II afferents are reduced by clonidine and tizanidine support this proposal. On the other hand, a lack of effect of clonidine and tizanidine upon other types of excitatory or inhibitory interneurones argues against any major contribution of such interneurones to the abnormally strong responses of alpha-motoneurones to muscle stretch.

The pattern of excitation of human lower limb motoneurones by probable group II muscle afferents

1. Heteronymous group II effects were investigated in the human lower limb. Changes in firing probability of single motor units in quadriceps (Q), biceps (Bi), semitendinosus (ST), gastrocnemius medialis (GM) and tibialis anterior (TA) were studied after electrical stimuli between 1 and 3 times motor threshold (MT) applied to common peroneal (CP), superficial (SP) and deep (DP) peroneal, Bi and GM nerves in those nerve-muscle combinations without recurrent inhibition. 2. Stimulation of the CP and Bi nerves evoked in almost all of the explored Q motor units a biphasic excitation with a low-threshold early peak, attributable to non-monosynaptic group I excitation, and a higher threshold late peak. When the CP nerve was cooled (or the stimulation applied to a distal branch, DP), the increase in latency was greater for the late than for the early peak, indicating that the late excitation is due to stimulation of afferents with a slower conduction velocity than group I fibres, presumably in the group II range. In ST motor units the group II excitation elicited by stimulation of the GM and SP nerves was particularly large and frequent, and the non-monosynaptic group I excitation was often replaced by an inhibition. 3. A late group II-induced excitation from CP to Q motoneurones and from GM and SP to ST motoneurones was also observed when using the H reflex as a test. 4. The electrical threshold and conduction velocity of the largest diameter fibres evoking the group II excitation were estimated to be 2.1 and 0.65 times those of the fastest Ia afferents, respectively. In the combinations tested in the present investigation the group II input seemed to be primarily of muscle origin. 5. The potent heteronymous group II excitation of motoneurones of both flexors and extensors of the knee contrasted with the absence of a group II effect from DP to GM and from GM to TA. In none of the combinations explored was there any evidence for group II inhibition of motoneurones. The possible contribution to postural reactions of the potent group II excitation of thigh motoneurones is discussed.

Comments on group II excitation in hindlimb motoneurones in high and low spinal cats

Effects from group II muscle afferents on gastrocnemius-soleus (G-S) motoneurones were compared in unanaesthetized anaemically decerebrated high (C1) and low (Th10) spinal cats. The proportion of G-S motoneurones receiving group II excitation was about the same in low and in high spinal cats. No overall decrease in the strength of group II excitation could be demonstrated after low spinalization. It is postulated that the previously observed low incidence of group II EPSPs in G-S motoneurones in low spinal cats was due to anaesthesia.

Reflex pathways from group II muscle afferents. 1. Distribution and linkage of reflex actions to alpha-motoneurones

The interneuronally mediated reflex actions evoked by electrical stimulation of group II muscle afferents in low spinal cats have been reinvestigated with intracellular recording with motoneurones to knee flexors and ankle extensors. The results of Eccles and Lundberg (1959) have been confirmed and extended. There was wide convergence from flexors and extensors of group II excitation to flexor and group II inhibition to extensor motoneurones. Some quantitative differences in the effect from the different nerves are described. Latency measurements suggest that the minimal linkage is disynaptic in the excitatory interneuronal pathways and trisynaptic in the inhibitory pathways. Disynaptic group II EPSPs were found in 14% of the ankle extensor motoneurones but were much more common in unanaesthetized high spinal cats (Wilson and Kato 1965). From these results and corresponding ones on flexors (Holmqvist and Lundberg 1961) it is postulated that secondary afferents in addition to the weak monosynaptic connexions (Kirkwood and Sears 1975) have disynaptic excitatory pathways and trisynaptic inhibitory pathways to both flexor and extensor motoneurones. It is proposed that the group II actions of the flexor reflex pattern characterizing the anaesthetized low spinal cat are due to suppression of the inhibitory pathway to flexor motoneurones and the excitatory pathway to extensor motoneurones. In some ankle extensor motoneurones the disynaptic group II EPSPs occurred in combination with IPSPs from the FRA (including group II and III muscle afferents). The possibility is considered that these group II EPSPs are mediated by an interneuronal group II pathway with little or no input from group III muscle afferents but probably from extramuscular receptors. In other ankle extensor motoneurones group II EPSPs were combined with EPSPs from group III muscle afferents, cutaneous afferents and joint afferents. It is postulated that these group II EPSPs are mediated by an interneuronal pathway from the FRA which also supply interneuronal pathways giving inhibition to extensor or/and flexor motoneurones and excitation to flexors as postulated by Eccles and Lundberg (1959) and Holmqvist and Lundberg (1961).

Segmental organization of rat lateral longissimus, a muscle involved in lordosis behavior: EMG and muscle nerve recordings

Following stimulation of lumbar cutaneous and high threshold muscle afferents in urethane-anesthetized ovariectomized rats, polysynaptic multi-unit responses were recorded from muscle nerves to lateral longissimus (LL) at a mean latency of 9.5 ms. These responses could be reciprocally evoked between segments with no apparent rostro-caudal asymmetry. Polysynaptic responses habituated to repeated stimulation within 0.5-1.5 min but could be evoked again after several minutes rest. In estradiol-treated rats, 60% of the 9.5 ms responses were followed by late discharges (greater than 40 ms) as compared to 24% in untreated control animals (P = 0.05). Following stimulation to the L3 and L4 motor nerves to lateral longissimus, EMG responses were recorded from overlapping fields of innervation. The conduction velocity of the fast muscle fibers was determined to be 7 m/s. The short length of most of the LL muscle fibers and the intersegmental recruitment of LL motoneurons by cutaneous afferents is compatible with the integrated action of axial muscles in the performance of lordosis behavior.

Convergence on interneurones mediating the reciprocal Ia inhibition of motoneurones. II. Effects from segmental flexor reflex pathways

Interneurones identified as mediating the disynaptic reciprocal Ia inhibition of motoneurones (referred to as "Ia inhibitory interneurones") were recorded in the lumbar spinal cord of the cat. Volleys in ipsilateral and contralateral high threshold muscle afferents, cutaneous and high threshold joint afferents evoked a mixture of polysynaptic excitation and inhibition. These effects were ascribed to pathways activated by flexor reflex afferents (FRA) and in addition a specific ipsilateral low threshold cutaneous pathway. Ia inhibitory interneurones excited monosynaptically from flexor nerves received stronger net excitation by volleys in ipsilateral FRA than did extensor coupled interneurones, while the opposite pattern was seen from the contralateral FRA. These patterns are similar to those found in flexor and extensor motoneurones respectivey. The FRA inhibition in Ia inhibitory interneurones was partly mediated by "opposite" Ia inhibitory interneurones, i.e. those which are mediating the Ia inhibition of Ia inhibitory interneurones. The extent to which the FRA inhibition is transmitted by Ia inhibitory interneurones was roughly estimated by its susceptibility to recurrent depression by antidromic ventral root stimulation. The main conclusion is that most segmental pathways seem to evoke their effects in parallel to motoneurones and Ia inhibitory interneurones which are monosynaptically linked to the same muscle. The functional importance of this conclusion is discussed in a following report.

Facilitation from contralateral primary afferents of interneuronal transmission in the Ia inhibitory pathway to motoneurones

The action of volleys in contralateral primary afferents on transmission in the Ia inhibitory pathways to motoneurones was investigated with intracellular recording from motoneurones. Ia IPSPs in flexor as well as most extensor motoneurones were regularly facilitated by volleys in contralateral high threshold muscle, cutaneous and joint afferents in spinal cats under chloralose anaesthesia. In decerebrate cats with a low pontine lesion transmission in Ia inhibitory pathways was not facilitated but rather depressed by volleys in these afferents. The recurrent effects from motor axon collaterals were investigated on inhibitory transmission from different contralateral afferents to motoneurones. Previous investigations have shown that the interneurones mediating the reciprocal Ia inhibition receive recurrent inhibition via motor axon collaterals and Renshaw cells. Now a strong positive correlation was revealed between recurrent depression of IPSPs evoked from different contralateral afferents and facilitation of Ia IPSPs by the same afferent volleys. These results suggest that the recurrent depression of IPSPs from different contralateral primary afferents depends on their excitatory convergence onto the Ia inhibitory interneurones, which then partly mediate the IPSP evoked in the motoneurone from these afferents.

Synaptic activity in motoneurons during natural stimulation of muscle spindles

Synaptic activity evoked in cat motoneurons during stretch stimulation of muscle spindles in the homonymous muscle has been studied by intracellular recording. A class of miniature excitatory postsynaptic potentials evoked by such physiologic stimulation results from activity in single group la spindle afferent fibers, and the criterion for identification is a predictable pattern of rhythmic occurrence of the synaptic potentials. Statistical examination of the amplitude distributions of this class of miniature synaptic potentials suggests that some group Ia fibers liberate a relatively large number of quantal excitatory postsynaptic potential units per fiber impulse.