Selective spike propagation in the central processes of an invertebrate neuron

Background calcium induced by subthreshold depolarization modifies homosynaptic facilitation at a synapse in Aplysia

Some synapses show two forms of short-term plasticity, homosynaptic facilitation, and a plasticity in which the efficacy of transmission is modified by subthreshold changes in the holding potential of the presynaptic neuron. In a previous study we demonstrated a further interactive effect. We showed that depolarizing changes in the presynaptic holding potential can increase the rate at which facilitation occurs. These experiments studied synaptic transmission between an Aplysia sensory neuron (B21) and its postsynaptic follower, the motor neuron (B8). We have also shown that subthreshold depolarizations of B21 produce widespread increases in its [Ca²⁺]_i via activation of a nifedipine-sensitive current. To determine whether it is this change in ‘background’ calcium that modifies synaptic transmission we compared the facilitation observed at the B21-B8 synapse under control conditions to the facilitation observed in nifedipine. Nifedipine had a depressing effect. Other investigators studying facilitation have focused on Ca_res (i.e., the calcium that remains in a neuron after spiking). Our results indicate that facilitation can also be impacted by calcium channels opened before spiking begins.

Revisiting the reticulum: feedforward and feedback contributions to motor program parameters in the crab cardiac ganglion microcircuit

The neurogenic heartbeat of crustaceans is controlled by the cardiac ganglion (CG), a central pattern generator (CPG) microcircuit composed of nine neurons. In most decapods, five "large" motor neurons (MNs) project from the CG to the myocardium, where their excitatory synaptic signals generate the rhythmic heartbeat. The processes of four "small" premotor neurons (PMNs) are confined to the CG, where they provide excitatory drive to the MNs via impulse-mediated chemical signals and electrotonic coupling. This study explored feedforward and feedback interactions between the PMNs and the MNs in the CG of the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus). Three methods were used to compare the activity of the MNs and the PMNs in the integrated CG to their autonomous firing patterns: 1) ligatures were tightened on the ganglion trunk that connects the PMNs and MNs; 2) TTX was applied focally to suppress selectively PMN or MN activity; and 3) sucrose pools were devised to block reversibly PMN or MN impulse conduction. With all treatments, the PMNs and MNs continued to produce autonomous rhythmic bursting following disengagement. Removal of PMN influence resulted in a significantly reduced MN duty cycle that was mainly attributable to a lower autonomous burst frequency. Conversely, after removal of MN feedback, the PMN duty cycle was increased, primarily due to a prolonged burst duration. Application of sucrose to block impulse conduction without eliminating PMN oscillations disclosed significant contributions of spike-mediated PMN-to-MN signals to the initiation and prolongation of the MN burst. Together, these observations support a view of the Callinectes CG composed of two classes of spontaneously bursting neurons with distinct endogenous rhythms. Compartmentalized feedforward and feedback signaling endow this microcircuit with syncytial properties such that the intrinsic attributes of the PMNs and MNs both contribute to shaping all parameters of the motor patterns transmitted to the myocardium.

Beyond faithful conduction: short-term dynamics, neuromodulation, and long-term regulation of spike propagation in the axon

Most spiking neurons are divided into functional compartments: a dendritic input region, a soma, a site of action potential initiation, an axon trunk and its collaterals for propagation of action potentials, and distal arborizations and terminals carrying the output synapses. The axon trunk and lower order branches are probably the most neglected and are often assumed to do nothing more than faithfully conducting action potentials. Nevertheless, there are numerous reports of complex membrane properties in non-synaptic axonal regions, owing to the presence of a multitude of different ion channels. Many different types of sodium and potassium channels have been described in axons, as well as calcium transients and hyperpolarization-activated inward currents. The complex time- and voltage-dependence resulting from the properties of ion channels can lead to activity-dependent changes in spike shape and resting potential, affecting the temporal fidelity of spike conduction. Neural coding can be altered by activity-dependent changes in conduction velocity, spike failures, and ectopic spike initiation. This is true under normal physiological conditions, and relevant for a number of neuropathies that lead to abnormal excitability. In addition, a growing number of studies show that the axon trunk can express receptors to glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine or biogenic amines, changing the relative contribution of some channels to axonal excitability and therefore rendering the contribution of this compartment to neural coding conditional on the presence of neuromodulators. Long-term regulatory processes, both during development and in the context of activity-dependent plasticity may also affect axonal properties to an underappreciated extent.

Effect of presynaptic membrane potential on electrical vs. chemical synaptic transmission

The growing realization that electrical coupling is present in the mammalian brain has sparked renewed interest in determining its functional significance and contrasting it with chemical transmission. One question of interest is whether the two types of transmission can be selectively regulated, e.g., if a cell makes both types of connections can electrical transmission occur in the absence of chemical transmission? We explore this issue in an experimentally advantageous preparation. B21, the neuron we study, is an Aplysia sensory neuron involved in feeding that makes electrical and chemical connections with other identified cells. Previously we demonstrated that chemical synaptic transmission is membrane potential dependent. It occurs when B21 is centrally depolarized prior to and during peripheral activation, but does not occur if B21 is peripherally activated at its resting membrane potential. In this article we study effects of membrane potential on electrical transmission. We demonstrate that maximal potentiation occurs in different voltage ranges for the two types of transmission, with potentiation of electrical transmission occurring at more hyperpolarized potentials (i.e., requiring less central depolarization). Furthermore, we describe a physiologically relevant type of stimulus that induces both spiking and an envelope of depolarization in the somatic region of B21. This depolarization does not induce functional chemical synaptic transmission but is comparable to the depolarization needed to maximally potentiate electrical transmission. In this study we therefore characterize a situation in which electrical and chemical transmission can be selectively controlled by membrane potential.

Comparative neurobiology of feeding in the opisthobranch sea slug, Aplysia, and the pulmonate snail, Helisoma: evolutionary considerations

The motor systems that generate feeding-related behaviors of gastropod mollusks provide exceptional opportunities for increasing our understanding of neural homologies and the evolution of neural networks. This report examines the neural control of feeding in Helisoma trivolvis, a pulmonate snail that ingests food by rasping or scraping material from the substrate, and Aplysia californica, an opisthobranch sea slug that feeds by using a grasping or seizing motion. Two classes of neurons that are present in the buccal ganglia of both species are considered: (1) clusters of peptidergic mechanoafferent cells that transmit sensory information from the tongue-like radula/odontophore complex to the central motor circuit; and (2) sets of octopamine-immunoreactive interneurons that are intrinsic to the feeding network. We review evidence that suggests homology of these cell types and propose that their roles have been largely conserved in the control of food-scraping and food-grasping consummatory behaviors. We also consider significant differences in the feeding systems of Aplysia and Helisoma that are associated with the existence of radular closure in Aplysia, an action that does not occur in Helisoma. It is hypothesized that a major adaptation in the innervation patterns of analogous, possibly homologous muscles could distinguish the food-scraping versus food-grasping species. It appears that although core CPG elements have been largely conserved in this system, the neuromuscular elements that they regulate have been more evolutionarily labile.

Two distinct mechanisms mediate potentiating effects of depolarization on synaptic transmission

Two distinct mechanisms mediate potentiating effects of depolarization on synaptic transmission. Recently there has been renewed interest in a type of plasticity in which a neuron's somatic membrane potential influences synaptic transmission. We study mechanisms that mediate this type of control at a synapse between a mechanoafferent, B21, and B8, a motor neuron that receives chemical synaptic input. Previously we demonstrated that the somatic membrane potential determines spike propagation within B21. Namely, B21 must be centrally depolarized if spikes are to propagate to an output process. We now demonstrate that this will occur with central depolarizations that are only a few millivolts. Depolarizations of this magnitude are not, however, sufficient to induce synaptic transmission to B8. B21-induced postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) are only observed if B21 is centrally depolarized by >or=10 mV. Larger depolarizations have a second impact on B21. They induce graded changes in the baseline intracellular calcium concentration that are virtually essential for the induction of chemical synaptic transmission. During motor programs, subthreshold depolarizations that increase calcium concentrations are observed during one of the two antagonistic phases of rhythmic activity. Chemical synaptic transmission from B21 to B8 is, therefore, likely to occur in a phase-dependent manner. Other neurons that receive mechanoafferent input are electrically coupled to B21. Differential control of spike propagation and chemical synaptic transmission may, therefore, represent a mechanism that permits selective control of afferent transmission to different types of neurons contacted by B21. Afferent transmission to neurons receiving chemical synaptic input will be phase specific, whereas transmission to electrically coupled followers will be phase independent.