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Mishra M. Daphnia magna as a Model Organism to Predict the Teratogenic Effect of Different Compounds. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2753:261-281. [PMID: 38285344 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3625-1_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
For aquatic ecosystem Daphnia magna is evolving as a model organism to check the teratogenicity of numerous compounds. D. magna can be easily cultured in the laboratory, and the teratogen effect of several compounds can be easily studied. The developmental stages are well studied in D. magna. All the developmental stages are transparent so the defect can be easily accessed. So, the postembryonic developmental changes can be easily studied after the exposure with teratogen. More importantly, D. magna also have a swimming behavioral phenotype. The behavioral defect can be easily accessed after teratogen exposure. The current chapter summarizes numerous protocols associated with embryo and adult staining and adult behavioral assays that can be used to access the teratogenicity of any unknown compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monalisa Mishra
- Neural Developmental Biology Lab, Department of Life Science, NIT Rourkela, Rourkela, Odisha, India.
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Harney E, Paterson S, Collin H, Chan BH, Bennett D, Plaistow SJ. Pollution induces epigenetic effects that are stably transmitted across multiple generations. Evol Lett 2022; 6:118-135. [PMID: 35386832 PMCID: PMC8966472 DOI: 10.1002/evl3.273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been hypothesized that the effects of pollutants on phenotypes can be passed to subsequent generations through epigenetic inheritance, affecting populations long after the removal of a pollutant. But there is still little evidence that pollutants can induce persistent epigenetic effects in animals. Here, we show that low doses of commonly used pollutants induce genome‐wide differences in cytosine methylation in the freshwater crustacean Daphnia pulex. Uniclonal populations were either continually exposed to pollutants or switched to clean water, and methylation was compared to control populations that did not experience pollutant exposure. Although some direct changes to methylation were only present in the continually exposed populations, others were present in both the continually exposed and switched to clean water treatments, suggesting that these modifications had persisted for 7 months (>15 generations). We also identified modifications that were only present in the populations that had switched to clean water, indicating a long‐term legacy of pollutant exposure distinct from the persistent effects. Pollutant‐induced differential methylation tended to occur at sites that were highly methylated in controls. Modifications that were observed in both continually and switched treatments were highly methylated in controls and showed reduced methylation in the treatments. On the other hand, modifications found just in the switched treatment tended to have lower levels of methylation in the controls and showed increase methylation in the switched treatment. In a second experiment, we confirmed that sublethal doses of the same pollutants generate effects on life histories for at least three generations following the removal of the pollutant. Our results demonstrate that even low doses of pollutants can induce transgenerational epigenetic effects that are stably transmitted over many generations. Persistent effects are likely to influence phenotypic development, which could contribute to the rapid adaptation, or extinction, of populations confronted by anthropogenic stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewan Harney
- Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7ZB United Kingdom
- Current address: Institute of Evolutionary Biology (CSIC‐UPF) CMIMA Building Barcelona 08003 Spain
| | - Steve Paterson
- Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7ZB United Kingdom
| | - Hélène Collin
- Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7ZB United Kingdom
| | - Brian H.K. Chan
- Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7ZB United Kingdom
- Current address: Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health The University of Manchester Manchester M13 9PT United Kingdom
| | - Daimark Bennett
- Molecular and Physiology Cell Signalling, Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7ZB United Kingdom
| | - Stewart J. Plaistow
- Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 7ZB United Kingdom
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Maternal Responses and Adaptive Changes to Environmental Stress via Chronic Nanomaterial Exposure: Differences in Inter and Transgenerational Interclonal Broods of Daphnia magna. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 22:ijms22010015. [PMID: 33374973 PMCID: PMC7792578 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
There is increasing recognition that environmental nano-biological interactions in model species, and the resulting effects on progeny, are of paramount importance for nanomaterial (NM) risk assessment. In this work, Daphnia magna F0 mothers were exposed to a range of silver and titanium dioxide NMs. The key biological life history traits (survival, growth and reproduction) of the F1 intergenerations, at the first (F1B1), third (F1B3) and fifth (F1B5) broods, were investigated. Furthermore, the F1 germlines of each of the three broods were investigated over 3 more generations (up to 25 days each) in continuous or removed-from NM exposure, to identify how the length of maternal exposure affects the resulting clonal broods. Our results show how daphnids respond to NM-induced stress, and how the maternal effects show trade-offs between growth, reproduction and survivorship. The F1B1 (and following germline) had the shortest F0 maternal exposure times to the NMs, and thus were the most sensitive showing reduced size and reproductive output. The F1B3 generation had a sub-chronic maternal exposure, whereas the F1B5 generation suffered chronic maternal exposure where (in most cases) the most compensatory adaptive effects were displayed in response to the prolonged NM exposure, including enhanced neonate output and reduced gene expression. Transgenerational responses of multiple germlines showed a direct link with maternal exposure time to 'sub-lethal' effect concentrations of NMs (identified from standard OECDs acute toxicity tests which chronically presented as lethal) including increased survival and production of males in the F1B3 and G1B5 germlines. This information may help to fine-tune environmental risk assessments of NMs and prediction of their impacts on environmental ecology.
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Kvist J, Athanàsio CG, Pfrender ME, Brown JB, Colbourne JK, Mirbahai L. A comprehensive epigenomic analysis of phenotypically distinguishable, genetically identical female and male Daphnia pulex. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:17. [PMID: 31906859 PMCID: PMC6945601 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-6415-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Daphnia species reproduce by cyclic parthenogenesis involving both sexual and asexual reproduction. The sex of the offspring is environmentally determined and mediated via endocrine signalling by the mother. Interestingly, male and female Daphnia can be genetically identical, yet display large differences in behaviour, morphology, lifespan and metabolic activity. Our goal was to integrate multiple omics datasets, including gene expression, splicing, histone modification and DNA methylation data generated from genetically identical female and male Daphnia pulex under controlled laboratory settings with the aim of achieving a better understanding of the underlying epigenetic factors that may contribute to the phenotypic differences observed between the two genders. RESULTS In this study we demonstrate that gene expression level is positively correlated with increased DNA methylation, and histone H3 trimethylation at lysine 4 (H3K4me3) at predicted promoter regions. Conversely, elevated histone H3 trimethylation at lysine 27 (H3K27me3), distributed across the entire transcript length, is negatively correlated with gene expression level. Interestingly, male Daphnia are dominated with epigenetic modifications that globally promote elevated gene expression, while female Daphnia are dominated with epigenetic modifications that reduce gene expression globally. For examples, CpG methylation (positively correlated with gene expression level) is significantly higher in almost all differentially methylated sites in male compared to female Daphnia. Furthermore, H3K4me3 modifications are higher in male compared to female Daphnia in more than 3/4 of the differentially regulated promoters. On the other hand, H3K27me3 is higher in female compared to male Daphnia in more than 5/6 of differentially modified sites. However, both sexes demonstrate roughly equal number of genes that are up-regulated in one gender compared to the other sex. Since, gene expression analyses typically assume that most genes are expressed at equal level among samples and different conditions, and thus cannot detect global changes affecting most genes. CONCLUSIONS The epigenetic differences between male and female in Daphnia pulex are vast and dominated by changes that promote elevated gene expression in male Daphnia. Furthermore, the differences observed in both gene expression changes and epigenetic modifications between the genders relate to pathways that are physiologically relevant to the observed phenotypic differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jouni Kvist
- Research Program for Molecular Neurology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | | | - Michael E Pfrender
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environmental Change Initiative, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, USA
| | - James B Brown
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, USA
- Centre for Computational Biology (CCB), University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | | | - Leda Mirbahai
- Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK.
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Lindeman LC, Thaulow J, Song Y, Kamstra JH, Xie L, Asselman J, Aleström P, Tollefsen KE. Epigenetic, transcriptional and phenotypic responses in two generations of Daphnia magna exposed to the DNA methylation inhibitor 5-azacytidine. ENVIRONMENTAL EPIGENETICS 2019; 5:dvz016. [PMID: 31528364 PMCID: PMC6736351 DOI: 10.1093/eep/dvz016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The water flea Daphnia magna is a keystone species in freshwater ecosystems and has been widely used as a model organism in environmental ecotoxicology. This aquatic crustacean is sensitive to environmental stressors and displays considerable plasticity in adapting to changing environmental conditions. Part of this plasticity may be due to epigenetic regulation of gene expression, including changes to DNA methylation and histone modifications. Because of the generally hypomethylated genome of this species, we hypothesized that the histone code may have an essential role in the epigenetic control and that histone modifications might be an early marker for stress. This study aims to characterize the epigenetic, transcriptional and phenotypic responses and their causal linkages in directly exposed adult (F0) Daphnia and peritoneal exposed neonates (F1) after a chronic (7-day) exposure to a sublethal concentration (10 mg/l) of 5-azacytidine, a well-studied vertebrate DNA methylation inhibitor. Exposure of the F0 generation significantly reduced the cumulative fecundity, accompanied with differential expression of genes in the one-carbon-cycle metabolic pathway. In the epigenome of the F0 generation, a decrease in global DNA methylation, but no significant changes on H3K4me3 or H3K27me3, were observed. In the F1 offspring generation, changes in gene expression, a significant reduction in global DNA methylation and changes in histone modifications were identified. The results indicate that exposure during adulthood may result in more pronounced effects on early development in the offspring generation, though interpretation of the data should be carefully done since both the exposure regime and developmental period is different in the two generations examined. The obtained results improve our understanding of crustacean epigenetics and the tools developed may promote use of epigenetic markers in hazard assessment of environmental stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif Christopher Lindeman
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 1432 Ås, Norway
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway
- Correspondence address. Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 1432 Ås, Norway. Tel: +47 67232039; Fax: +47 67230691; E-mail:
| | - Jens Thaulow
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, N-0349 Oslo, Norway
| | - You Song
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, N-0349 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jorke H Kamstra
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 369 Sentrum, N-0454 Oslo, Norway
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Li Xie
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, N-0349 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jana Asselman
- Laboratory for Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology (GhEnToxLab), Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Peter Aleström
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway
- Department of Basic Sciences and Aquatic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 369 Sentrum, N-0454 Oslo, Norway
| | - Knut Erik Tollefsen
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 1432 Ås, Norway
- Centre for Environmental Radioactivity, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, PO Box 5003, N-1432 Ås, Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, N-0349 Oslo, Norway
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Weiss LC. Sensory Ecology of Predator-Induced Phenotypic Plasticity. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 12:330. [PMID: 30713490 PMCID: PMC6345714 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecological communities are organized in trophic levels that share manifold interactions forming complex food webs. Infochemicals can further modify these interactions, e.g., by inducing defenses in prey. The micro-crustacean Daphnia is able to respond to predator-specific chemical cues indicating an increased predation risk. Daphnia shows plastic responses by adapting its morphology, behavior, and physiology, increasing organism, and population fitness. This stabilizes community structures. This review will describe the progress that has been made in understanding the high degree of plasticity observed in the model crustacean Daphnia. I summarize current knowledge on the processes of predator detection, ranging from the nature of biologically active chemical cues to the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms. With this, I aim to provide a comprehensive overview on the molecular mechanisms of ad hoc environmental phenotypic adaptation. In times of climate change and pollution understanding information transfer in aquatic systems is valuable as it will allow us to predict whether and how community structures are being affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda C. Weiss
- Department of Animal Ecology, Evolution and Biodiversity, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Angrish MM, Allard P, McCullough SD, Druwe IL, Helbling Chadwick L, Hines E, Chorley BN. Epigenetic Applications in Adverse Outcome Pathways and Environmental Risk Evaluation. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2018; 126:045001. [PMID: 29669403 PMCID: PMC6071815 DOI: 10.1289/ehp2322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The epigenome may be an important interface between environmental chemical exposures and human health. However, the links between epigenetic modifications and health outcomes are often correlative and do not distinguish between cause and effect or common-cause relationships. The Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) framework has the potential to demonstrate, by way of an inference- and science-based analysis, the causal relationship between chemical exposures, epigenome, and adverse health outcomes. OBJECTIVE The objective of this work is to discuss the epigenome as a modifier of exposure effects and risk, perspectives for integrating toxicoepigenetic data into an AOP framework, tools for the exploration of epigenetic toxicity, and integration of AOP-guided epigenetic information into science and risk-assessment processes. DISCUSSION Organizing epigenetic information into the topology of a qualitative AOP network may help describe how a system will respond to epigenetic modifications caused by environmental chemical exposures. However, understanding the biological plausibility, linking epigenetic effects to short- and long-term health outcomes, and including epigenetic studies in the risk assessment process is met by substantive challenges. These obstacles include understanding the complex range of epigenetic modifications and their combinatorial effects, the large number of environmental chemicals to be tested, and the lack of data that quantitatively evaluate the epigenetic effects of environmental exposure. CONCLUSION We anticipate that epigenetic information organized into AOP frameworks can be consistently used to support biological plausibility and to identify data gaps that will accelerate the pace at which epigenetic information is applied in chemical evaluation and risk-assessment paradigms. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2322.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M Angrish
- National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development (ORD), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Patrick Allard
- University of California Los Angeles Institute for Society and Genetics, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Shaun D McCullough
- National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, ORD, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Ingrid L Druwe
- National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development (ORD), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Lisa Helbling Chadwick
- Division of Extramural Research and Training, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Erin Hines
- National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development (ORD), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Brian N Chorley
- University of California Los Angeles Institute for Society and Genetics, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Holt WV. Exploitation of Non-mammalian Model Organisms in Epigenetic Research. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 1014:155-173. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-62414-3_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Hales NR, Schield DR, Andrew AL, Card DC, Walsh MR, Castoe TA. Contrasting gene expression programs correspond with predator-induced phenotypic plasticity within and across generations in Daphnia. Mol Ecol 2017. [PMID: 28628257 DOI: 10.1111/mec.14213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Research has shown that a change in environmental conditions can alter the expression of traits during development (i.e., "within-generation phenotypic plasticity") as well as induce heritable phenotypic responses that persist for multiple generations (i.e., "transgenerational plasticity", TGP). It has long been assumed that shifts in gene expression are tightly linked to observed trait responses at the phenotypic level. Yet, the manner in which organisms couple within- and TGP at the molecular level is unclear. Here we tested the influence of fish predator chemical cues on patterns of gene expression within- and across generations using a clone of Daphnia ambigua that is known to exhibit strong TGP but weak within-generation plasticity. Daphnia were reared in the presence of predator cues in generation 1, and shifts in gene expression were tracked across two additional asexual experimental generations that lacked exposure to predator cues. Initial exposure to predator cues in generation 1 was linked to ~50 responsive genes, but such shifts were 3-4× larger in later generations. Differentially expressed genes included those involved in reproduction, exoskeleton structure and digestion; major shifts in expression of genes encoding ribosomal proteins were also identified. Furthermore, shifts within the first-generation and transgenerational shifts in gene expression were largely distinct in terms of the genes that were differentially expressed. Such results argue that the gene expression programmes involved in within- vs. transgeneration plasticity are fundamentally different. Our study provides new key insights into the plasticity of gene expression and how it relates to phenotypic plasticity in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole R Hales
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
| | - Drew R Schield
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
| | - Audra L Andrew
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
| | - Daren C Card
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
| | - Matthew R Walsh
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
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Gómez R, Van Damme K, Gosálvez J, Morán ES, Colbourne JK. Male meiosis in Crustacea: synapsis, recombination, epigenetics and fertility in Daphnia magna. Chromosoma 2015; 125:769-87. [PMID: 26685998 PMCID: PMC5023733 DOI: 10.1007/s00412-015-0558-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We present the first detailed cytological study of male meiosis in Daphnia (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Cladocera)—an aquatic microcrustacean with a cyclical parthenogenetic life cycle. Using immunostaining of the testes in Daphnia magna for baseline knowledge, we characterized the different stages of meiotic division and spermiogenesis in relation to the distribution of proteins involved in synapsis, early recombination events and sister chromatid cohesion. We also studied post-translational histone modifications in male spermatocytes, in relation to the dynamic chromatin progression of meiosis. Finally, we applied a DNA fragmentation test to measure sperm quality of D. magna, with respect to levels of inbreeding. As a proxy for fertility, this technique may be used to assess the reproductive health of a sentinel species of aquatic ecosystems. Daphnia proves to be a model species for comparative studies of meiosis that is poised to improve our understanding of the cytological basis of sexual and asexual reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío Gómez
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, E-28049, Madrid, Spain. .,Environmental Genomics Group. School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT, UK. .,Chromosome Dynamics Group. School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Kay Van Damme
- Environmental Genomics Group. School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Jaime Gosálvez
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, E-28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eugenio Sánchez Morán
- Chromosome Dynamics Group. School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT, UK
| | - John K Colbourne
- Environmental Genomics Group. School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, B15 2TT, UK
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