Red ginseng extract attenuates kainate-induced excitotoxicity by antioxidative effects

Redox-Based Theranostics of Gastric Ulcers Using Nitroxyl Radicals

Significance: Redox-based theranostics involves redox monitoring and therapeutics that normalize redox imbalance. It may be a promising approach to markedly improve a patient's quality of life through streamlined treatment. Nitroxyl radicals are useful for both redox monitoring and treating gastric ulcers in rodents. Recent Advances: Redox monitoring using in vivo electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy in a gastric ulcer rat model showed the production of reactive oxygen species in the whole stomach. A combination of Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and nitroxyl radicals provided high-resolution images of redox imbalance in the stomach of rats with a gastric ulcer. Treatment with nitroxyl radicals was effective to treat ulcers that were formed using model experiments of Helicobacter pylori and mental stress as well as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Critical Issues: For redox monitoring using Overhauser-enhanced MRI, the EPR irradiation power that is delivered to subjects must be within the range of the specific absorption rate regulation to protect against microwave damage regardless of a decrease in image contrast. The effect of long-term treatment with a nitroxyl radical in patients with a gastric ulcer remains unclear. Future Directions: Further research on redox-based theranostics in redox-related diseases, including gastric ulcers, would be accelerated by improving the redox imager and by developing functional nitroxyl radicals that localize in the target organ, tissue, or cell and that have specific reactivity for the redox-related biomolecule.

Botanicals as Modulators of Neuroplasticity: Focus on BDNF

The involvement of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in different central nervous system (CNS) diseases suggests that this neurotrophin may represent an interesting and reliable therapeutic target. Accordingly, the search for new compounds, also from natural sources, able to modulate BDNF has been increasingly explored. The present review considers the literature on the effects of botanicals on BDNF. Botanicals considered were Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell, Coffea arabica L., Crocus sativus L., Eleutherococcus senticosus Maxim., Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (green tea), Ginkgo biloba L., Hypericum perforatum L., Olea europaea L. (olive oil), Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Rhodiola rosea L., Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, Vitis vinifera L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, and Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton. The effect of the active principles responsible for the efficacy of the extracts is reviewed and discussed as well. The high number of articles published (more than one hundred manuscripts for 14 botanicals) supports the growing interest in the use of natural products as BDNF modulators. The studies reported strengthen the hypothesis that botanicals may be considered useful modulators of BDNF in CNS diseases, without high side effects. Further clinical studies are mandatory to confirm botanicals as preventive agents or as useful adjuvant to the pharmacological treatment.

Protective Effects of Red Ginseng Oil against Aβ25-35-Induced Neuronal Apoptosis and Inflammation in PC12 Cells

One of pathological characteristics of Alzheimer's disease (AD), aggregation and deposition of β amyloid (Aβ), has been accepted as a potent activator of neuronal cell death. Red ginseng is well-known for various pharmacological activities, but most studies have been focused on red ginseng water extract (RGW), which has resulted in the conception of the present study of red ginseng oil (RGO) against Aβ_25-35-induced neurotoxicity. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction by Aβ were verified and the underlying mechanism by which RGO inhibited neuronal cell death, mitochondria dysfunction and NF-κB pathway related protein markers were evaluated. RGO attenuated Aβ_25-35-induced apoptosis, not only by inhibiting calcium influx, but also by reducing mitochondrial membrane potential loss. RGO significantly decreased Bax, whereas increased Bcl-2 and inactivated of caspase-3 and -9 and PARP-1 stimulated by Aβ_25-35. Anti-neuroinflammatory effect of RGO was demonstrated by downregulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38, resulting in inhibiting of the NF-κB pathway and thereby suppressing the expressions of pro-inflammatory mediators such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). The present study revealed that RGO is a potential natural resource of the functional foods industry as well as a promising candidate of multi-target neuronal protective agent for the prevention of AD.

Effects of ingredients of Korean brown rice cookies on attenuation of cholesterol level and oxidative stress in high-fat diet-fed mice

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Owing to health concerns related to the consumption of traditional snacks high in sugars and fats, much effort has been made to develop functional snacks with low calorie content. In this study, a new recipe for Korean rice cookie, dasik, was developed and its antioxidative, lipid-lowering, and anti-inflammatory effects and related mechanisms were elucidated. The effects were compared with those of traditional rice cake dasik (RCD), the lipid-lowering effect of which is greater than that of traditional western-style cookies.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Ginseng-added brown rice dasik (GBRD) was prepared with brown rice flour, fructooligosaccharide, red ginseng extract, and propolis. Mice were grouped (n = 7 per group) into those fed a normal AIN-76 diet, a high-fat diet (HFD), and HFD supplemented with RCD or GBRD. Dasik in the HFD accounted for 7% of the total calories. The lipid, reactive oxygen species, and peroxynitrite levels, and degree of lipid peroxidation in the plasma or liver were determined. The expression levels of proteins involved in lipid metabolism and inflammation, and those of antioxidant enzymes were determined by western blot analysis.

RESULTS

The plasma and hepatic total cholesterol concentrations in the GBRD group were significantly decreased via downregulation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-2 and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (P < 0.05). The hepatic peroxynitrite level was significantly lower, whereas glutathione was higher, in the GBRD group than in the RCD group. Among the antioxidant enzymes, catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were significantly upregulated in the GBRD group (P < 0.05). In addition, nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) expression in the GBRD group was significantly lower than that in the RCD group.

CONCLUSIONS

GBRD decreases the plasma and hepatic cholesterol levels by downregulating cholesterol synthesis. This new dasik recipe also improves the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory status in HFD-fed mice via CAT and GPx upregulation and NF-κB downregulation. These effects were significantly higher than those of RCD.

Huprine X Attenuates The Neurotoxicity Induced by Kainic Acid, Especially Brain Inflammation

Huprine X (HX) is a synthetic anticholinesterasic compound that exerts a potent inhibitory action on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, an agonist effect on cholinergic receptors, neuroprotective activity in different neurotoxicity models in vivo and in vitro and cognition enhancing effects in non-transgenic (C57BL/6) and transgenic (3xTg-AD, APPswe) mice. In this study, we assessed the ability of HX (0.8 mg/kg, 21 days) to prevent the damage induced by kainic acid (KA; 28 mg/kg) regarding apoptosis, glia reactivity and neurogenesis in mouse brain. KA administration significantly modified the levels of pAkt1, Bcl2, pGSK3β, p25/p35, increased the glial cell markers and reduced the neurogenesis process. We also observed that pre-treatment with HX significantly reduced the p25/p35 ratio and increased synaptophysin levels, which suggests a protective effect against apoptosis and an improvement of neuroplasticity. The increase in GFAP (88%) and Iba-1 (72%) induced by KA was totally prevented by HX pre-treatment, underlying a relevant anti-inflammatory action of the anticholinesterasic drug. Our findings highlight the potential of HX, in particular, and of AChEIs, in general, to treat a number of diseases that course with both cognitive deficits and chronic inflammatory processes.

Ameliorating Effect of Ginseng on Epididymo-Orchitis Inducing Alterations in Sperm Quality and Spermatogenic Cells Apoptosis following Infection by Uropathogenic Escherichia coli in Rats

Objective

Epididymo-orchitis (EO) potentially results in reduced fertility in up to 60% of affected patients. The anti-inflammatory effects of Korean red ginseng (KRG) and its ability to act as an immunoenhancer in parallel with the beneficial effects of this ancient herbal medicine on the reproductive systems of animals and humans led us to evaluate its protective effects against acute EO.

Materials and Methods

This animal experimental study was conducted in the Department of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences (ZUMS), Zanjan, Iran during 2013-2015. We divided 50 Wistar rats into five following groups (n=10 per group): i. Control-intact animals, ii. Vehicle-phosphate buffered saline (PBS) injection into the vas deferens, iii. KRG-an intraperitoneal (IP) injection of KRG, iv. EO-an injection of uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) strain M39 into the vas defer- ens, and v. EO/ KRG-injections of both UPEC strain M39 and KRG. The treatment lasted seven days. We then evaluated sperm parameters, number of germ cell layers, Johnson’s criteria, germ cell apoptosis, body weight and relative sex organs weight.

Results

Acute EO increased the relative weight of prostate and seminal vesicles (P≤0.05). It also reduced sperm quality such as total motility, sperm concentration (P≤0.01), and the percentage of normal sperm (P≤0.001). Moreover, acute EO decreased Miller’s (P≤0.05) and Johnsen’s scores and increased apoptotic indexes of spermatogenic cells (P≤0.001). KRG treatment decreased prostate weight gain (P≤0.05) and improved the percentage of sperm with normal morphology, total motility (P≤0.01), and progressive motility (P≤0.05). The apoptotic indexes of spermatogenic cells reduced (P≤0.001), whereas both Johnsen’s (P≤0.01) and Miller’s criteria increased in the KRG-treated EO testis (P≤0.05).

Conclusion

Consequently, KRG ameliorated the devastating effects of EO on the sperm retrieved from either epididymis or testicle in rats.

Oriental Medicine Woohwangchungsimwon Attenuates Kainic Acid-Induced Seizures and Neuronal Cell Death in the Hippocampus

Woohwangchungsimwon (WCW) is an oriental medicine that has been extensively prescribed in Asia to patients with apoplexy, high blood pressure, acute/chronic convulsion, and so on. However, the potential therapeutic value of WCW in treating the pathologic brain has not yet been fully investigated. In the present study, we evaluated whether WCW has beneficial effects on kainic acid (KA)-induced excitotoxicity. An intraperitoneal injection of KA (40 mg/kg) and an intracerebroventricular injection of KA (0.2 μg) produced typical seizure behavior and neuronal cell death in the CA1 and CA3 pyramidal layers of the hippocampus, respectively. However, the systemic administration of WCW significantly attenuated the seizure behavior and neuronal cell death. WCW was found to exert the best protective effect when it was administrated 2 hours before a KA injection. Moreover, this WCW-induced neuroprotection was accompanied by a reduction in microglia activation and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxyganase-2 in the hippocampus. These results suggest that WCW has therapeutic potential to suppress KA-induced pathogenesis in the brain by inhibiting inflammation.

Implications of red Panax ginseng in oxidative stress associated chronic diseases

The steaming process of Panax ginseng has been reported to increase its major known bioactive components, ginsenosides, and, therefore, its biological properties as compared to regular Panax ginseng. Biological functions of red Panax ginseng attenuating pro-oxidant environments associated with chronic diseases are of particular interest, since oxidative stress can be a key contributor to the pathogenesis of chronic diseases. Additionally, proper utilization of various biomarkers for evaluating antioxidant activities in natural products, such as ginseng, can also be important to providing validity to their activities. Thus, studies on the effects of red ginseng against various diseases as determined in cell lines, animal models, and humans were reviewed, along with applied biomarkers for verifying such effects. Limitations and future considerations of studying red ginseng were been discussed. Although further clinical studies are warranted, red ginseng appears to be beneficial for attenuating disease-associated symptoms via its antioxidant activities, as well as for preventing oxidative stress-associated chronic diseases.

Korean Red Ginseng improves atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions by suppressing expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in vivo and in vitro

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of allergic inflammatory diseases such as atopic dermatitis (AD), asthma, and allergic rhinitis worldwide has increased and complete recovery is difficult. Korean Red Ginseng, which is the heat-processed root of Panax ginseng Meyer, is widely and frequently used as a traditional medicine in East Asia. In this study, we investigated whether Korean Red Ginseng water extract (RGE) regulates the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines via the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs)/nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathway in allergic inflammation.

METHODS

Compound 48/80-induced anaphylactic shock and 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNFB)-induced AD-like skin lesion mice models were used to investigate the antiallergic effects of RGE. Human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) and human mast cells (HMC-1) were also used to clarify the effects of RGE on the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines.

RESULTS

Anaphylactic shock and DNFB-induced AD-like skin lesions were attenuated by RGE administration through reduction of serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) and interleukin (IL)-6 levels in mouse models. RGE also reduced the production of proinflammatory cytokines including IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8, and expression of chemokines such as IL-8, thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC), and macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC) in HaCaT cells. Additionally, RGE decreased the release of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 as well as expressions of chemokines including macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, MIP-1β, regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, and IL-8 in HMC-1 cells. Furthermore, our data demonstrated that these inhibitory effects occurred through blockage of the MAPK and NF-κB pathway.

CONCLUSION

RGE may be a useful therapeutic agent for the treatment of allergic inflammatory diseases such as AD-like dermatitis.

Kainic Acid-Induced Excitotoxicity Experimental Model: Protective Merits of Natural Products and Plant Extracts

Excitotoxicity is well recognized as a major pathological process of neuronal death in neurodegenerative diseases involving the central nervous system (CNS). In the animal models of neurodegeneration, excitotoxicity is commonly induced experimentally by chemical convulsants, particularly kainic acid (KA). KA-induced excitotoxicity in rodent models has been shown to result in seizures, behavioral changes, oxidative stress, glial activation, inflammatory mediator production, endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and selective neurodegeneration in the brain upon KA administration. Recently, there is an emerging trend to search for natural sources to combat against excitotoxicity-associated neurodegenerative diseases. Natural products and plant extracts had attracted a considerable amount of attention because of their reported beneficial effects on the CNS, particularly their neuroprotective effect against excitotoxicity. They provide significant reduction and/or protection against the development and progression of acute and chronic neurodegeneration. This indicates that natural products and plants extracts may be useful in protecting against excitotoxicity-associated neurodegeneration. Thus, targeting of multiple pathways simultaneously may be the strategy to maximize the neuroprotection effect. This review summarizes the mechanisms involved in KA-induced excitotoxicity and attempts to collate the various researches related to the protective effect of natural products and plant extracts in the KA model of neurodegeneration.

Alleviation of kainic acid-induced brain barrier dysfunction by 4-o-methylhonokiol in in vitro and in vivo models

This experiment was designed to investigate whether 4-O-methylhonokiol (MH), a principal ingredient of Magnolia (M.) officinalis bark, alleviated acute intraperitoneal (i.p.) kainic acid- (KA-) induced brain blood barrier dysfunction (BBBD) via pathological examination and cytological analyses of the brain tissues of mice. KA (10–30 mg/kg) time- and dose-dependently increased the water content of brain tissues and induced edema and encephalopathy. However, pretreatment with MH (5 and 20 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced the water content of the brain compared to that observed in the KA control group. Furthermore, MH significantly and dose-dependently reversed the remarkable variations in evan's blue dye (EBD) staining and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels that were induced by KA (10 mg/kg, i.p.). MH also decreased the elevated seizure scores that were induced by KA (10 mg/kg, i.p.) in mice in a manner similar to scavengers such as DMTU and trolox. Additionally, MH significantly scavenged intracellular ROS and Ca²⁺ within hippocampal cells. The tight junction seals mediated by claudin (Cld-5) were also found to be modulated by MH. MH efficiently reduced 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (IC₅₀, 52.4 mM) and ^•OH with an electron spin resonance (ESR) signal rate constant of 4 × 10⁹ M⁻¹ · S⁻¹, which is close to the reactivity of the vitamin E analog trolox. Taken together, these results suggest that MH may enhance radical scavenging in lipid and hydrophobic environments, which may be important for the physiological activity of the barrier.

Protective effect of resveratrol on arsenic trioxide-induced nephrotoxicity in rats

BACKGROUD/OBEJECTIVES

Arsenic, which causes human carcinogenicity, is ubiquitous in the environment. This study was designed to evaluate modulation of arsenic induced cancer by resveratrol, a phytoalexin found in vegetal dietary sources that has antioxidant and chemopreventive properties, in arsenic trioxide (As₂O₃)-induced Male Wistar rats.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Adult rats received 3 mg/kg As₂O₃ (intravenous injection, iv.) on alternate days for 4 days. Resveratrol (8 mg/kg) was administered (iv.) 1 h before As₂O₃ treatment. The plasma and homogenization enzymes associated with oxidative stress of rat kidneys were measured, the kidneys were examined histologically and trace element contents were assessed.

RESULTS

Rats treated with As₂O₃ had significantly higher oxidative stress and kidney arsenic accumulation; however, pretreatment with resveratrol reversed these changes. In addition, prior to treatment with resveratrol resulted in lower blood urea nitrogen, creatinine and insignificant renal tubular epithelial cell necrosis. Furthermore, the presence of resveratrol preserved the selenium content (0.805 ± 0.059 µg/g) of kidneys in rats treated with As₂O₃. However, resveratrol had no effect on zinc level in the kidney relative to As₂O₃-treated groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data show that supplementation with resveratrol alleviated nephrotoxicity by improving antioxidant capacity and arsenic efflux. These findings suggest that resveratrol has the potential to protect against kidney damage in populations exposed to arsenic.

The coronary dilation effect of shen fu injection was mediated through NO

OBJECTIVES

Shen Fu Injection (SF), which consisted of Red ginseng extraction injection (RG) and prepared aconite extraction injection (RA), is a traditional Chinese medicine mainly used for various cardiac diseases. This study is to analyse SF's effects on cardiac performance and coronary circulation. And the coronary dilating effect and mechanism of the above three injections were also explored.

METHODS

Mature male guinea pigs were used as our animal model. We employed two types of perfusion methods (constant pressure and constant flow) in vitro, using Langendorff heart preparations to observe the cardiac function and coronary response to SF (1/200). The coronary dilation effects of the above three injections (1/800, 1/400 and 1/200) were recorded at basal coronary resting tone and when coronary vessels were pre-contracted with a thromboxane A2 analogue (U46619), in the presence or the absence of the inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis (L-NAME, 10-4 M), the blocker of Ca2+-activated potassium channel(TEA, 10-3 M), or the blocker of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive potassium channel (glybenclamide) (10-5 M).

RESULTS

When perfused with constant pressure, SF significantly increased coronary flow, left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) and the rate-pressure product (RPP). When perfused with constant flow, SF produced a significant reduction in the coronary perfusion pressure (CPP), LVDP and RPP. The coronary vasodilatation response of the above three injections can be reduced by L-NAME but was unaffected by TEA or glybenclamide when coronary vessels were pre-contracted with U46619 but not at resting tone. SF, RG and RA can all up-regulate eNOS expression in the human umbilical vein cells (EA.hy926).

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated that SF does not contribute to the inotropic change of myocardium whose improvement is due to alternation of coronary flow. The coronary dilation effect of SF was mediated through RG and RA, via promoting NO release.

Vitamin C: a new auxiliary treatment of epilepsy?

Although many approaches to the therapy of epilepsy exist, most of antiepileptic drugs, beside certain and unquestioned benefits, have convinced disadvantages. That is the reason for looking for new methods of treatment. Ascorbic acid, as an antioxidant and electron donor accumulated in central nervous system, seems to take part in diminishing reactions of oxidative stress in brain and cooperate with other antioxidants like alpha-tocoferol. Vitamin C, easily transported through the blood-brain barrier, is proved to reduce injury in the hippocampus during seizures. Depending on type of seizures, it has mostly inhibitory activity and even decreases mortality. Moreover, vitamin C acts as a neuroprotective factor by consolidating cell membranes and decreasing lipid peroxidation. A possible adjunctive role of vitamin C in epileptic patients needs to be considered.