1
|
Oliveira JM, Zenzeluk J, Serrano-Nascimento C, Romano MA, Romano RM. A System Biology Approach Reveals New Targets for Human Thyroid Gland Toxicity in Embryos and Adult Individuals. Metabolites 2024; 14:226. [PMID: 38668354 PMCID: PMC11052307 DOI: 10.3390/metabo14040226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Compounds of natural or synthetic origin present in personal care products, food additives, and packaging may interfere with hormonal regulation and are called endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The thyroid gland is an important target of these compounds. The objective of this study was to analyze public data on the human thyroid transcriptome and investigate potential new targets of EDCs in the embryonic and adult thyroid glands. We compared the public transcriptome data of adult and embryonic human thyroid glands and selected 100 up- or downregulated genes that were subsequently subjected to functional enrichment analysis. In the embryonic thyroid, the most highly expressed gene was PRMT6, which methylates arginine-4 of histone H2A (86.21%), and the downregulated clusters included plasma lipoprotein particles (39.24%) and endopeptidase inhibitory activity (24.05%). For the adult thyroid gland, the most highly expressed genes were related to the following categories: metallothionein-binding metals (56.67%), steroid hormone biosynthetic process (16.67%), and cellular response to vascular endothelial growth factor stimulus (6.67%). Several compounds ranging from antihypertensive drugs to enzyme inhibitors were identified as potentially harmful to thyroid gland development and adult function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeane Maria Oliveira
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Reproductive Toxicology, State University of the Midwest (UNICENTRO), Alameda Élio Antonio Dalla Vecchia, nº 838, Guarapuava 85040-167, PR, Brazil; (J.M.O.); (J.Z.); (M.A.R.)
| | - Jamilli Zenzeluk
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Reproductive Toxicology, State University of the Midwest (UNICENTRO), Alameda Élio Antonio Dalla Vecchia, nº 838, Guarapuava 85040-167, PR, Brazil; (J.M.O.); (J.Z.); (M.A.R.)
| | - Caroline Serrano-Nascimento
- Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences (ICAQF), Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Professor Arthur Riedel, 275, Diadema 09972-270, SP, Brazil;
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Molecular and Translational Endocrinology Medicine, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669-11º andar-L11E, São Paulo 04039-032, SP, Brazil
| | - Marco Aurelio Romano
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Reproductive Toxicology, State University of the Midwest (UNICENTRO), Alameda Élio Antonio Dalla Vecchia, nº 838, Guarapuava 85040-167, PR, Brazil; (J.M.O.); (J.Z.); (M.A.R.)
| | - Renata Marino Romano
- Department of Medicine, Laboratory of Reproductive Toxicology, State University of the Midwest (UNICENTRO), Alameda Élio Antonio Dalla Vecchia, nº 838, Guarapuava 85040-167, PR, Brazil; (J.M.O.); (J.Z.); (M.A.R.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yerukala Sathipati S, Aimalla N, Tsai MJ, Carter T, Jeong S, Wen Z, Shukla SK, Sharma R, Ho SY. Prognostic microRNA signature for estimating survival in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Carcinogenesis 2023; 44:650-661. [PMID: 37701974 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgad062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the leading cancer types with increasing annual incidence and high mortality in the USA. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as valuable prognostic indicators in cancer patients. To identify a miRNA signature predictive of survival in patients with HCC, we developed a machine learning-based HCC survival estimation method, HCCse, using the miRNA expression profiles of 122 patients with HCC. METHODS The HCCse method was designed using an optimal feature selection algorithm incorporated with support vector regression. RESULTS HCCse identified a robust miRNA signature consisting of 32 miRNAs and obtained a mean correlation coefficient (R) and mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.87 ± 0.02 and 0.73 years between the actual and estimated survival times of patients with HCC; and the jackknife test achieved an R and MAE of 0.73 and 0.97 years between actual and estimated survival times, respectively. The identified signature has seven prognostic miRNAs (hsa-miR-146a-3p, hsa-miR-200a-3p, hsa-miR-652-3p, hsa-miR-34a-3p, hsa-miR-132-5p, hsa-miR-1301-3p and hsa-miR-374b-3p) and four diagnostic miRNAs (hsa-miR-1301-3p, hsa-miR-17-5p, hsa-miR-34a-3p and hsa-miR-200a-3p). Notably, three of these miRNAs, hsa-miR-200a-3p, hsa-miR-1301-3p and hsa-miR-17-5p, also displayed association with tumor stage, further emphasizing their clinical relevance. Furthermore, we performed pathway enrichment analysis and found that the target genes of the identified miRNA signature were significantly enriched in the hepatitis B pathway, suggesting its potential involvement in HCC pathogenesis. CONCLUSIONS Our study developed HCCse, a machine learning-based method, to predict survival in HCC patients using miRNA expression profiles. We identified a robust miRNA signature of 32 miRNAs with prognostic and diagnostic value, highlighting their clinical relevance in HCC management and potential involvement in HCC pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nikhila Aimalla
- Department of Internal Medicine-Pediatrics, Marshfield Clinic Health System, Marshfield, WI 54449, USA
| | - Ming-Ju Tsai
- Hinda and Arthur Marcus Institute for Aging Research at Hebrew Senior Life, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tonia Carter
- Center for Precision Medicine Research, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI 54449, USA
| | - Sohyun Jeong
- Hinda and Arthur Marcus Institute for Aging Research at Hebrew Senior Life, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zhi Wen
- Center for Precision Medicine Research, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI 54449, USA
| | - Sanjay K Shukla
- Center for Precision Medicine Research, Marshfield Clinic Research Institute, Marshfield, WI 54449, USA
| | - Rohit Sharma
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Marshfield Clinic Health System, Marshfield, WI 54449, USA
| | - Shinn-Ying Ho
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Systems Biology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- College of Health Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Biomedical Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Marino L, Kim A, Ni B, Celi FS. Thyroid hormone action and liver disease, a complex interplay. Hepatology 2023:01515467-990000000-00521. [PMID: 37535802 DOI: 10.1097/hep.0000000000000551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Thyroid hormone action is involved in virtually all physiological processes. It is well known that the liver and thyroid are intimately linked, with thyroid hormone playing important roles in de novo lipogenesis, beta-oxidation (fatty acid oxidation), cholesterol metabolism, and carbohydrate metabolism. Clinical and mechanistic research studies have shown that thyroid hormone can be involved in chronic liver diseases, including alcohol-associated or NAFLD and HCC. Thyroid hormone action and synthetic thyroid hormone analogs can exert beneficial actions in terms of lowering lipids, preventing chronic liver disease and as liver anticancer agents. More recently, preclinical and clinical studies have indicated that some analogs of thyroid hormone could also play a role in the treatment of liver disease. These synthetic molecules, thyromimetics, can modulate lipid metabolism, particularly in NAFLD/NASH. In this review, we first summarize the thyroid hormone signaling axis in the context of liver biology, then we describe the changes in thyroid hormone signaling in liver disease and how liver diseases affect the thyroid hormone homeostasis, and finally we discuss the use of thyroid hormone-analog for the treatment of liver disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Marino
- Department of Medicine, UConn Health, University of Connecticut, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Adam Kim
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, UConn Health, University of Connecticut, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Bin Ni
- Alliance Pharma, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Francesco S Celi
- Department of Medicine, UConn Health, University of Connecticut, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Rybicka M, Verrier ER, Baumert TF, Bielawski KP. Polymorphisms within DIO2 and GADD45A genes increase the risk of liver disease progression in chronic hepatitis b carriers. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6124. [PMID: 37059745 PMCID: PMC10104815 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32753-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The study enrolled 284 patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Participants included people with mild fibrotic lesions (32.5%), moderate to severe fibrotic lesions (27.5%), cirrhotic lesions (22%), hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in 5%, and people with no fibrotic lesions in 13%. Eleven SNPs within DIO2, PPARG, ATF3, AKT, GADD45A, and TBX21 were genotyped by mass spectrometry. The rs225014 TT (DIO2) and rs10865710 CC (PPARG) genotypes were independently associated with susceptibility to advanced liver fibrosis. However, cirrhosis was more prevalent in individuals with the GADD45A rs532446 TT and ATF3 rs11119982 TT genotypes. In addition, the rs225014 CC variant of DIO2 was more frequently found in patients with a diagnosis of HCC. These findings suggest that the above SNPs may play a role in HBV-induced liver damage in a Caucasian population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magda Rybicka
- Department of Photobiology and Molecular Diagnostics, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Abrahama 58, 80-307, Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Eloi R Verrier
- Inserm, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques UMR_S1110, Université de Strasbourg, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Thomas F Baumert
- Inserm, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques UMR_S1110, Université de Strasbourg, 67000, Strasbourg, France
- Pôle Hépato-Digestif, Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, 67-000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Krzysztof Piotr Bielawski
- Department of Photobiology and Molecular Diagnostics, Intercollegiate Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Gdansk and Medical University of Gdansk, Abrahama 58, 80-307, Gdansk, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Zhang X, Chen Y, Ye H, Luo Z, Li J, Chen Z, Zhang E, Li W. Correlation between thyroid function, sensitivity to thyroid hormones and metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease in euthyroid subjects with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes. Endocrine 2022; 80:366-379. [PMID: 36539681 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-022-03279-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To estimate the prevalence of metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) and to evaluate the associations between thyroid parameters, MAFLD and liver fibrosis in euthyroid patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). METHODS Overall, 776 patients with newly diagnosed T2DM and 120 subjects without diabetes were included. All the participants were euthyroid, and were categorized as non-MAFLD and MAFLD. Demographic information, biochemical parameters, and serum thyroid hormones were collected. The thyroid hormone sensitivity indices were calculated. MAFLD was defined according to abdominal ultrasound and clinical manifestations. Noninvasive fibrosis indices were calculated to identify advanced liver fibrosis. RESULTS The prevalence of MAFLD was significantly higher in patients with T2DM than in subjects without diabetes. Levels of free triiodothyronine (FT3) and FT3 to free thyroxine (FT4) ratio were significantly higher in subjects with MAFLD. In patients with T2DM, levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), Thyroid feedback quantile-based index (TFQIFT3) calculated using FT3 and TSH, thyrotroph T3 resistance index (TT3RI) and thyrotroph T4 resistance index (TT4RI) were significantly higher in subjects with MAFLD. The prevalence of MAFLD increased with the rise of FT3, FT3/FT4, TSH, and sensitivity to thyroid hormone indices (TFQIFT3, TT3RI, and TT4RI). But significant correlations were not found between thyroid hormones, sensitivity to thyroid hormones and MAFLD, after adjustment for BMI and HOMA-IR. The incidence of advanced fibrosis tended to increase as the rise of TSH and sensitivity to thyroid hormone indices (TFQIFT3, TT3RI, TT4RI, and TSHI). CONCLUSION MAFLD was prevalent in euthyroid patients with newly diagnosed T2DM. Higher normal FT3, TSH and impaired sensitivity to thyroid hormones are associated with increased incidence of MAFLD, being dependent on other metabolic factors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodan Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yimei Chen
- Health Examination Department, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huiyu Ye
- Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zirui Luo
- The Second Clinical Medicine School, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiahong Li
- The Second Clinical Medicine School, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhishan Chen
- Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Enting Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wangen Li
- Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Rostkowska O, Olejniczak-Kęder A, Spychalski P, Szaryńska M, Kobiela J. Triiodothyronine lowers the potential of colorectal cancer stem cells in vitro. Oncol Rep 2022; 49:21. [PMID: 36484405 PMCID: PMC9773011 DOI: 10.3892/or.2022.8458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) play a key role in the development and progression of colorectal cancer (CRC), but the influence of triiodothyronine (T3) on the biological regulation of CSCs remains unclear. In the present study, it was reported that T3 exerts significant impact on CSCs of two CRC cell lines cultured in the form of colonospheres. It was observed that the incubation of colonospheres with T3 decreased the viability, proliferative and spherogenic potential of cancer cells (P<0.05). In addition, increased apoptotic rate of CRC cells treated with T3 was revealed. Furthermore, T3‑treated colonospheres were more likely to move into silenced pool in G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. The smaller sizes of colonospheres observed after the treatment with T3 confirmed this conclusion. T3 could lower the proportion of primitive cells which supply the pool of proliferating cells within spheres. Thyroid receptors THRα1 and THRβ1 and two deiodinases (DIO2 and DIO3) were affected by T3 in manner depended on clinical stage of cancer and CRC cell line used for analysis. In summary, the present study uncovered a novel function of thyroid hormones signaling in the regulation of the CSCs of CRC, and these findings may be useful for developing novel therapies by targeting thyroid hormone functions in CRC cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olga Rostkowska
- Department of General, Endocrine and Transplant Surgery, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-214 Gdańsk, Poland
| | | | - Piotr Spychalski
- Department of General, Endocrine and Transplant Surgery, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-214 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Magdalena Szaryńska
- Histology Department, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland,Correspondence to: Dr Magdalena Szaryńska, Histology Department, Medical University of Gdansk, 1 Dębinki Street, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland, E-mail:
| | - Jarek Kobiela
- Department of General, Endocrine and Transplant Surgery, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-214 Gdańsk, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
The Role of Dynamic DNA Methylation in Liver Transplant Rejection in Children. Transplant Direct 2022; 8:e1394. [PMID: 36259078 PMCID: PMC9575761 DOI: 10.1097/txd.0000000000001394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcriptional regulation of liver transplant (LT) rejection may reveal novel predictive and therapeutic targets. The purpose of this article is to test the role of differential DNA methylation in children with biopsy-proven acute cellular rejection after LT.
Collapse
|
8
|
McVicker L, Cardwell CR, McIntosh SA, McMenamin ÚC. Cancer-specific mortality in breast cancer patients with hypothyroidism: a UK population-based study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2022; 195:209-221. [PMID: 35908274 PMCID: PMC9374643 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-022-06674-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Epidemiological studies have indicated a higher prevalence of hypothyroidism in breast cancer patients, possibly related to shared risk factors and breast cancer treatments. However, few studies have evaluated how hypothyroidism impacts survival outcomes in breast cancer patients. We aimed to determine the association between hypothyroidism and breast cancer-specific and all-cause mortality. METHODS We conducted a population-based study using the Scottish Cancer Registry to identify women diagnosed with breast cancer between 2010 and 2017. A matched comparison cohort of breast cancer-free women was also identified. Using hospital diagnoses and dispensed prescriptions for levothyroxine, we identified hypothyroidism diagnosed before and after breast cancer diagnosis and determined associations with breast cancer-specific and all-cause mortality. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to calculate hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) adjusted for potential confounders. RESULTS A total of 33,500 breast cancer patients were identified, of which 3,802 had hypothyroidism before breast cancer diagnosis and 565 patients went on to develop hypothyroidism after. Breast cancer patients had higher rates of hypothyroidism compared with cancer-free controls (HR 1.14, 95% CI 1.01-1.30). Among breast cancer patients, we found no association between hypothyroidism (diagnosed before or after) and cancer-specific mortality (before: HR 0.99, 95% CI 0.88-1.12, after: HR 0.97, 95% CI 0.63-1.49). Similar associations were seen for all-cause mortality. CONCLUSION In a large contemporary breast cancer cohort, there was little evidence that hypothyroidism, either at diagnosis or diagnosed after breast cancer, was associated with cancer-specific or all-cause mortality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren McVicker
- Centre for Public Health, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK.
| | | | - Stuart A McIntosh
- Patrick G Johnston Centre for Cancer Research, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
- Breast Surgery Department, Belfast City Hospital, Belfast Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Úna C McMenamin
- Centre for Public Health, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Bikeyeva V, Abdullah A, Radivojevic A, Abu Jad AA, Ravanavena A, Ravindra C, Igweonu-Nwakile EO, Ali S, Paul S, Yakkali S, Teresa Selvin S, Thomas S, Hamid P. Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Hypothyroidism: What You Need to Know. Cureus 2022; 14:e28052. [PMID: 36127957 PMCID: PMC9477544 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.28052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) represents one of the leading causes of chronic liver disease globally, perhaps because of the drastic increase in prevalence around the world during the last 20 years and continues growing. The disease starts from simple steatosis (NAFL) that can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and, in some patients, progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The pathogenesis and pathophysiology of NAFLD are complex and involve different factors (genetic, metabolic, endocrinopathies, and others). One of the concerns that appeared in recent years is hypothyroidism-induced NAFLD. The pathogenesis is compound and not well understood, and an association between hypothyroidism and NAFLD remains controversial because of insufficient studies that can confirm it. More research is needed to determine the association between hypothyroidism and NAFLD and the underlying mechanisms. In this review, we will discuss a more in-depth analysis of the physiology of thyroid hormones (TH) as well as the pathophysiology of hypothyroidism-induced NAFLD and, based on the recent meta-analyses, the association of thyroid hormones and NAFLD.
Collapse
|
10
|
Hadjzadeh MAR, Khodadadi H, Sohrabi F, Hedayati-Moghadam M, Ghorbani A, Hosseinian S. Protective effects of Portulaca oleracea and vitamin E on cardiovascular parameters in rats with subclinical hyperthyroidism. Clin Exp Hypertens 2022; 44:663-669. [PMID: 35972305 DOI: 10.1080/10641963.2022.2112209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Subclinical hyperthyroidism (SHT) is an endocrine disorder that is associated with abnormalities in heart structure and function. Oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathophysiology of cardiac disorders caused by SHT. Portulaca oleracea (P. Oleracea) is a herbaceous plant with many pharmacologic effects including antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. In the present study, the effects of Portulaca oleracea and vitamin E on the biochemical, hemodynamic, and functional parameters of the cardiac tissue was studied in rats with subclinical hyperthyroidism. METHODS Fifty-six male rats were divided into seven groups: 1-Control group: daily injection of saline, 2-SHT group: daily injection of levothyroxine sodium (LS) (20 µg/kg), 3- T4+Po groups were given LS and P. oleracea (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg in drinking water), 4- the T4+vit E groups received LS and a daily injection of vitamin E (100 and 200 mg/kg). Cardiac index, systolic blood pressure (SBP), also malondialdehyde and total thiol levels were measured in cardiac tissue. RESULTS SBP and maximum dP/dt were significantly increased and minimum dP/dt was significantly decreased in SHT group. In P. oleracea groups, maximum dP/dt were significantly reduced and minimum dP/dt was increased. Malondialdehyde levels and cardiac index in groups receiving vitamin E and P. oleracea were significantly decreased. Maximum dP/dt was decreased in the group receiving LS+vitamin E. Minimum dP/dt was significantly higher in group received LS+ vitamin E. CONCLUSION This study showed that Portulaca oleracea has a positive effect on cardiac dysfunction caused by subclinical hyperthyroidism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mousa-Al-Reza Hadjzadeh
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Hadi Khodadadi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Farzaneh Sohrabi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mahdiyeh Hedayati-Moghadam
- Student Research Committee, Jiroft University of Medical Sciences, Jiroft, Iran.,School of Medicine, Jiroft University of Medical Sciences, Jiroft, Iran
| | - Atieh Ghorbani
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Sara Hosseinian
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Jo D, Kim HK, Kim YK, Song J. Transcriptome Profile of Thyroid Glands in Bile Duct Ligation Mouse Model. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158244. [PMID: 35897811 PMCID: PMC9332885 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) contributes to multiple cellular mechanisms in the liver, muscle cells, adipose tissue, and brain, etc. In particular, the liver is an important organ in TH metabolism for the conversion of thyronine (T4) into triiodothyronine (T3) by the deiodinase enzyme. TH levels were significantly decreased and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels were significantly increased in patients with liver failure compared with normal subjects. Among liver failure diseases, hepatic encephalopathy (HE) deserves more attention because liver damage and neuropathologies occur simultaneously. Although there is numerous evidence of TH dysregulation in the HE model, specific mechanisms and genetic features of the thyroid glands in the HE model are not fully understood. Here, we investigated the significantly different genes in the thyroid glands of a bile duct ligation (BDL) mouse model as the HE model, compared to the thyroid glands of the control mouse using RNA sequencing. We also confirmed the alteration in mRNA levels of thyroid gland function-related genes in the BDL mouse model. Furthermore, we evaluated the increased level of free T4 and TSH in the BDL mouse blood. Thus, we emphasize the potential roles of TH in liver metabolism and suggest that thyroid dysfunction-related genes in the HE model should be highlighted for finding the appropriate solution for an impaired thyroid system in HE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danbi Jo
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Korea;
- Biomedical Science Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Korea
| | - Hee Kyung Kim
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Korea;
| | - Young-Kook Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Korea;
| | - Juhyun Song
- Department of Anatomy, Chonnam National University Medical School, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Korea;
- Biomedical Science Graduate Program (BMSGP), Chonnam National University, Seoyangro 264, Hwasun 58128, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-61-379-2706
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Liao CJ, Huang PS, Chien HT, Lin TK, Yeh CT, Lin KH. Effects of Thyroid Hormones on Lipid Metabolism Pathologies in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10061232. [PMID: 35740254 PMCID: PMC9219876 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10061232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The typical modern lifestyle contributes to the development of many metabolic-related disorders, as exemplified by metabolic syndrome. How to prevent, resolve, or avoid subsequent deterioration of metabolic disturbances and the development of more serious diseases has become an important and much-discussed health issue. Thus, the question of the physiological and pathological roles of thyroid hormones (THs) in metabolism has never gone out of fashion. Although THs influence almost all organs, the liver is one of the most important targets as well as the hub of metabolic homeostasis. When this homeostasis is out of balance, diseases may result. In the current review, we summarize the common features and actions of THs, first focusing on their effects on lipid metabolism in the liver. In the second half of the review, we turn to a consideration of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), a disease characterized by excessive accumulation of fat in the liver that is independent of heavy alcohol consumption. NAFLD is a growing health problem that currently affects ~25% of the world’s population. Unfortunately, there are currently no approved therapies specific for NAFLD, which, if left uncontrolled, may progress to more serious diseases, such as cirrhosis or liver cancer. This absence of effective treatment can also result in the development of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), an aggressive form of NAFLD that is the leading cause of liver transplantation in the United States. Because THs play a clear role in hepatic fat metabolism, their potential application in the prevention and treatment of NAFLD has attracted considerable research attention. Studies that have investigated the use of TH-related compounds in the management of NAFLD are also summarized in the latter part of this review. An important take-home point of this review is that a comprehensive understanding of the physiological and pathological roles of THs in liver fat metabolism is possible, despite the complexities of this regulatory axis—an understanding that has clinical value for the specific management of NAFLD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Jung Liao
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan; (C.-J.L.); (P.-S.H.)
| | - Po-Shuan Huang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan; (C.-J.L.); (P.-S.H.)
| | - Hui-Tzu Chien
- Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan;
- Research Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Kang Lin
- Neurosurgery, Fu Jen Catholic University Hospital School of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City 242, Taiwan;
| | - Chau-Ting Yeh
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan;
| | - Kwang-Huei Lin
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan; (C.-J.L.); (P.-S.H.)
- Research Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan;
- Department of Biochemistry, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1 Road, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
- Correspondence: ; Tel./Fax: +886-3-2118263
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Zhu P, Deng W, Yu J, Yang S. Thyroid Hormone Receptor Agonist Promotes Hair Growth in Mice. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 2022; 15:319-330. [PMID: 38207279 PMCID: PMC10681092 DOI: 10.2147/ccid.s354219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Background Thyroxine is important to maintain the normal operation of the body. Both clinical and experimental results show thyroxine is closely related to hair growth, the mechanism of which is not fully understood. Purpose Investigate the effect of thyroxine receptor agonist, TDM10842, for dorsal hair growth in C3H mice and explore its underlying mechanism. Methods Depilated mice were applied with the TDM10842, vehicle of this drug and without any materials on dorsal skin. RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) was employed to identify the change in gene expression of skin tissues. Quantitative real-time PCR (rt-PCR) and immunoblotting were conducted to validate key differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between different groups. Results The TDM group showed early induction of anagen. 857, 782, and 276 differentially expressed genes were identified between 3 groups. As a critical DEG in group TDM, Pclaf was positively related to the motivation of Wnt/beta-catenin and Hedgehog signaling pathways, with a high expression of Ki67 and cyclinD1. Conclusion TDM10842 accelerates the anagen entrance and the potential mechanism might be the activation of Wnt/beta-catenin and Hedgehog pathways. Pclaf serves as a critical molecule involved in pathway activation, and cyclinD1 is an important effector protein downstream of the pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peiqiu Zhu
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Weiwei Deng
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jin Yu
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuxia Yang
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Control and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Zhao M, Xie H, Shan H, Zheng Z, Li G, Li M, Hong L. Development of Thyroid Hormones and Synthetic Thyromimetics in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:1102. [PMID: 35163026 PMCID: PMC8835192 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the fastest-growing liver disease in the world. Despite targeted agents which are needed to provide permanent benefits for patients with NAFLD, no drugs have been approved to treat NASH. Thyroid hormone is an important signaling molecule to maintain normal metabolism, and in vivo and vitro studies have shown that regulation of the 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3)/ thyroid hormone receptor (TR) axis is beneficial not only for metabolic symptoms but also for the improvement of NAFLD and even for the repair of liver injury. However, the non-selective regulation of T3 to TR subtypes (TRα/TRβ) could cause unacceptable side effects represented by cardiotoxicity. To avoid deleterious effects, TRβ-selective thyromimetics were developed for NASH studies in recent decades. Herein, we will review the development of thyroid hormones and synthetic thyromimetics based on TR selectivity for NAFLD, and analyze the role of TR-targeted drugs for the treatment of NAFLD in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Man Zhao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; (M.Z.); (H.X.); (H.S.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Huazhong Xie
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; (M.Z.); (H.X.); (H.S.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Hao Shan
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; (M.Z.); (H.X.); (H.S.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Zhihua Zheng
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; (M.Z.); (H.X.); (H.S.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Guofeng Li
- Health Science Centre, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China;
| | - Min Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; (M.Z.); (H.X.); (H.S.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Liang Hong
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Chiral Molecule and Drug Discovery, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; (M.Z.); (H.X.); (H.S.); (Z.Z.)
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
TG68, a Novel Thyroid Hormone Receptor-β Agonist for the Treatment of NAFLD. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222313105. [PMID: 34884910 PMCID: PMC8657920 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222313105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Activation of thyroid hormone receptor β (THRβ) has shown beneficial effects on metabolic alterations, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Here, we investigated the effect of TG68, a novel THRβ agonist, on fatty liver accumulation and liver injury in mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD). C57BL/6 mice fed HFD for 17 or 18 weeks, a time when all mice developed massive steatohepatitis, were then given TG68 at a dose of 9.35 or 2.8 mg/kg for 2 or 3 weeks, respectively. As a reference compound, the same treatment was adopted using equimolar doses of MGL-3196, a selective THRβ agonist currently in clinical phase III. The results showed that treatment with TG68 led to a reduction in liver weight, hepatic steatosis, serum transaminases, and circulating triglycerides. qRT-PCR analyses demonstrated activation of THRβ, as confirmed by increased mRNA levels of Deiodinase-1 and Malic enzyme-1, and changes in lipid metabolism, as revealed by increased expression of Acyl-CoA Oxidase-1 and Carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1. The present results showed that this novel THRβ agonist exerts an anti-steatogenic effect coupled with amelioration of liver injury in the absence of extra-hepatic side effects, suggesting that TG68 may represent a useful tool for the treatment of NAFLD.
Collapse
|
16
|
Steinman JB, Salomao MA, Pajvani UB. Zonation in NASH - A key paradigm for understanding pathophysiology and clinical outcomes. Liver Int 2021; 41:2534-2546. [PMID: 34328687 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) exists as a spectrum ranging from simple steatosis to histologically defined hepatocyte injury and inflammatory changes that define steatohepatitis (NASH), and increase risk for fibrosis. Although zonal differences in NASH have not been systematically studied, periportal involvement has been associated with worse metabolic outcomes and more hepatic fibrosis as compared to pericentral disease. These data suggest that hepatic zonation of disease may influence the diversity of clinical presentations. Similarly, several randomized clinical trials suggest a differential response based on zonation of disease, with preferential effects on periportal (cysteamine) or pericentral disease (obeticholic acid, pioglitazone). Intriguingly, morphogenic pathways known to affect zonal development and maintenance - WNT/β-Catenin, Hedgehog, HIPPO/Yap/TAZ and Notch - have been implicated in NASH pathogenesis, and nuclear hormone receptors downstream of potential NASH therapeutics show zonal preferences. In this review, we summarize these data and propose that patient-specific activation of these pathways may explain the variability in clinical presentation, and the zone-specific response observed in clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcela A Salomao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ, USA
| | - Utpal B Pajvani
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Zebrafish Embryonic Exposure to BPAP and Its Relatively Weak Thyroid Hormone-Disrupting Effects. TOXICS 2020; 8:toxics8040103. [PMID: 33202880 PMCID: PMC7712898 DOI: 10.3390/toxics8040103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Safe endocrine-disrupting alternatives for bisphenol A (BPA) are needed because its adverse health effects have become a public concern. Some bisphenol analogues (bisphenol F and S) have been applied, but their endocrine-disrupting potential is either not negligible or weaker than that of BPA. However, the endocrine-disrupting potential of bisphenol AP (BPAP), another BPA alternative, has not yet been fully assessed. Hence, we evaluated the thyroid hormone (TH)-disrupting potency of BPAP because THs are essential endocrine hormones. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to BPAP (0, 18.2, 43.4, or 105.9 μg/L) for 120 h, and TH levels, the transcription of 16 TH-related genes, the transcriptome, development, and behavior were evaluated. In our study, a decrease in T4 level was observed only at the maximum nonlethal concentration, but significant changes in the T3 and TSHβ levels were not detected. BPAP did not cause significant changes in transcription and gene ontology enrichment related to the TH system. Developmental and behavioral changes were not observed. Despite T4 level reduction, other markers were not significantly affected by BPAP. These might indicate that BPAP has weak or negligible potency regarding TH disruption as a BPA alternative. This study might provide novel information on the TH-disrupting potential of BPAP.
Collapse
|
18
|
Paus R, Ramot Y, Kirsner RS, Tomic-Canic M. Topical L-thyroxine: The Cinderella among hormones waiting to dance on the floor of dermatological therapy? Exp Dermatol 2020; 29:910-923. [PMID: 32682336 PMCID: PMC7722149 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 06/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Topical hormone therapy with natural or synthetic ligands of nuclear hormone receptors such as glucocorticoids, vitamin D analogues and retinoids has a long and highly successful tradition in dermatology. Yet the dermatological potential of thyroid hormone receptor (TR) agonists has been widely ignored, despite abundant clinical, cell and molecular biology, mouse in vivo, and human skin and hair follicle organ culture data documenting a role of TR-mediated signalling in skin physiology and pathology. Here, we review this evidence, with emphasis on wound healing and hair growth, and specifically highlight the therapeutic potential of repurposing topical L-thyroxine (T4) for selected applications in future dermatological therapy. We underscore the known systemic safety and efficacy profile of T4 in clinical medicine, and the well-documented impact of thyroid hormones on, for example, human epidermal and hair follicle physiology, hair follicle epithelial stem cells and pigmentation, keratin expression, mitochondrial energy metabolism and wound healing. On this background, we argue that short-term topical T4 treatment deserves careful further preclinical and clinical exploration for repurposing as a low-cost, effective and widely available dermatotherapeutic, namely in the management of skin ulcers and telogen effluvium, and that its predictable adverse effects are well-manageable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Paus
- Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology & Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Centre for Dermatology Research, University of Manchester & NIHR Manchester Biomedical Research Centre, Manchester, UK
- Monasterium Laboratory, Münster, Germany
| | - Yuval Ramot
- Department of Dermatology, Hadassah Medical Center, The Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Robert S. Kirsner
- Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology & Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Marjana Tomic-Canic
- Dr. Phillip Frost Department of Dermatology & Cutaneous Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Hypothyroidism-Induced Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (HIN): Mechanisms and Emerging Therapeutic Options. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21165927. [PMID: 32824723 PMCID: PMC7460638 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21165927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is an emerging worldwide problem and its association with other metabolic pathologies has been one of the main research topics in the last decade. The aim of this review article is to provide an up-to-date correlation between hypothyroidism and NAFLD. We followed evidence regarding epidemiological impact, immunopathogenesis, thyroid hormone-liver axis, lipid and cholesterol metabolism, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation. After evaluating the influence of thyroid hormone imbalance on liver structure and function, the latest studies have focused on developing new therapeutic strategies. Thyroid hormones (THs) along with their metabolites and thyroid hormone receptor β (THR-β) agonist are the main therapeutic targets. Other liver specific analogs and alternative treatments have been tested in the last few years as potential NAFLD therapy. Finally, we concluded that further research is necessary as well as the need for an extensive evaluation of thyroid function in NAFLD/NASH patients, aiming for better management and outcome.
Collapse
|
20
|
Alam MA, Quamri MA, Sofi G, Ansari S. Update of hypothyroidism and its management in Unani medicine. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2020; 32:1-10. [PMID: 32776903 DOI: 10.1515/jbcpp-2020-0121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Hypothyroidism is a clinical syndrome caused by thyroid hormone deficiency due to reduced production, deranged distribution, or lack of effects of thyroid hormone. The prevalence of hypothyroidism in developed countries is around 4-5%, whereas it is about 11% in India, only 2% in the UK, and 4·6% in the USA. It is more common in women than in men. Hypothyroidism has multiple etiologies and manifestations. The most common clinical manifestations are weight gain, loss of hair, cold intolerance, lethargy, constipation, dry skin, and change in voice. The signs and symptoms of hypothyroidism differ with age, gender, severity of condition, and some other factors. The diagnosis is based on clinical history, physical examination and serum level of FT3, FT4, and thyroid-stimulating hormone, imaging studies, procedures, and histological findings. The treatment of choice for hypothyroidism is levothyroxine, however; in this review article, we have discussed the epidemiology, etiology, clinical sign and symptoms, diagnosis, complications, and management of hypothyroidism in modern medicine and a comparative treatment by the Unani system of medicine (USM). In the USM, the main emphasis of the principle of treatment (Usool-e-Ilaj) is to correct the abnormal constitution (Su-e-Mizaj) and alter the six prerequisites for existence (Asbab-e-Sitta Zarooriya) to restore normal health. It is a packaged treatment, that is, different components of treatment are given as a package form which includes different drugs, dosages form, and regimens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Md Anzar Alam
- Department of Moalajat, National Institute of Unani Medicine, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Ghulamuddin Sofi
- Department of Ilmul Advia, National Institute of Unani Medicine, Bangalore, India
| | - Shabnam Ansari
- Department of Biotechnology, Natural Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, Central University, New Delhi, India
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Saponaro F, Sestito S, Runfola M, Rapposelli S, Chiellini G. Selective Thyroid Hormone Receptor-Beta (TRβ) Agonists: New Perspectives for the Treatment of Metabolic and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Front Med (Lausanne) 2020; 7:331. [PMID: 32733906 PMCID: PMC7363807 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2020.00331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs) elicit significant effects on numerous physiological processes, such as growth, development, and metabolism. A lack of thyroid hormones is not compatible with normal health. Most THs effects are mediated by two different thyroid hormone receptor (TR) isoforms, namely TRα and TRβ, with the TRβ isoform known to be responsible for the main beneficial effects of TH on liver. In brain, despite the crucial role of TRα isoform in neuronal development, TRβ has been proposed to play a role in the remyelination processes. Consequently, over the past two decades, much effort has been applied in developing thyroid hormone analogs capable of uncoupling beneficial actions on liver (triglyceride and cholesterol lowering) and central nervous system (CNS) (oligodendrocyte proliferation) from deleterious effects on the heart, muscle and bone. Sobetirome (GC-1) and subsequently Eprotirome (KB2115) were the first examples of TRβ selective thyromimetics, with Sobetirome differing from the structure of thyronines because of the absence of halogens, biaryl ether oxygen, and amino-acidic side chain. Even though both thyromimetics showed encouraging actions against hypercholesterolemia, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and in the stimulation of hepatocytes proliferation, they were stopped after Phase 1 and Phase 2–3 clinical trials, respectively. In recent years, advances in molecular and structural biology have facilitated the design of new selective thyroid hormone mimetics that exhibit TR isoform-selective binding, and/or liver- and tissue-selective uptake, with Resmetirom (MGL-3196) and Hep-Direct prodrug VK2809 (MB07811) probably representing two of the most promising lipid lowering agents, currently under phase 2–3 clinical trials. More recently the application of a comprehensive panel of ADME-Toxicity assays enabled the selection of novel thyromimetic IS25 and its prodrug TG68, as very powerful lipid lowering agents both in vitro and in vivo. In addition to dyslipidemia and other liver pathologies, THs analogs could also be of value for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Sob-AM2, a CNS- selective prodrug of Sobetirome has been shown to promote significant myelin repair in the brain and spinal cord of mouse demyelinating models and it is rapidly moving into clinical trials in humans. Taken together all these findings support the great potential of selective thyromimetics in targeting a large variety of human pathologies characterized by altered metabolism and/or cellular differentiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Simona Sestito
- Department of Pathology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Simona Rapposelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.,Interdepartmental Research Centre for Biology and Pathology of Aging, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Huang PS, Wang CS, Yeh CT, Lin KH. Roles of Thyroid Hormone-Associated microRNAs Affecting Oxidative Stress in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20205220. [PMID: 31640265 PMCID: PMC6834183 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20205220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress occurs as a result of imbalance between the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant genes in cells, causing damage to lipids, proteins, and DNA. Accumulating damage of cellular components can trigger various diseases, including metabolic syndrome and cancer. Over the past few years, the physiological significance of microRNAs (miRNA) in cancer has been a focus of comprehensive research. In view of the extensive level of miRNA interference in biological processes, the roles of miRNAs in oxidative stress and their relevance in physiological processes have recently become a subject of interest. In-depth research is underway to specifically address the direct or indirect relationships of oxidative stress-induced miRNAs in liver cancer and the potential involvement of the thyroid hormone in these processes. While studies on thyroid hormone in liver cancer are abundantly documented, no conclusive information on the potential relationships among thyroid hormone, specific miRNAs, and oxidative stress in liver cancer is available. In this review, we discuss the effects of thyroid hormone on oxidative stress-related miRNAs that potentially have a positive or negative impact on liver cancer. Additionally, supporting evidence from clinical and animal experiments is provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Po-Shuan Huang
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
| | - Chia-Siu Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi 61363, Taiwan.
| | - Chau-Ting Yeh
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
| | - Kwang-Huei Lin
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
- Research Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Liu YC, Yeh CT, Lin KH. Molecular Functions of Thyroid Hormone Signaling in Regulation of Cancer Progression and Anti-Apoptosis. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20204986. [PMID: 31600974 PMCID: PMC6834155 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20204986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Several physiological processes, including cellular growth, embryonic development, differentiation, metabolism and proliferation, are modulated by genomic and nongenomic actions of thyroid hormones (TH). Several intracellular and extracellular candidate proteins are regulated by THs. 3,3,5-Triiodo-L-thyronine (T3) can interact with nuclear thyroid hormone receptors (TR) to modulate transcriptional activities via thyroid hormone response elements (TRE) in the regulatory regions of target genes or bind receptor molecules showing no structural homology to TRs, such as the cell surface receptor site on integrin αvβ3. Additionally, L-thyroxine (T4) binding to integrin αvβ3 is reported to induce gene expression through initiating non-genomic actions, further influencing angiogenesis and cell proliferation. Notably, thyroid hormones not only regulate the physiological processes of normal cells but also stimulate cancer cell proliferation via dysregulation of molecular and signaling pathways. Clinical hypothyroidism is associated with delayed cancer growth. Conversely, hyperthyroidism is correlated with cancer prevalence in various tumor types, including breast, thyroid, lung, brain, liver and colorectal cancer. In specific types of cancer, both nuclear thyroid hormone receptor isoforms and those on the extracellular domain of integrin αvβ3 are high risk factors and considered potential therapeutic targets. In addition, thyroid hormone analogs showing substantial thyromimetic activity, including triiodothyroacetic acid (Triac), an acetic acid metabolite of T3, and tetraiodothyroacetic acid (Tetrac), a derivative of T4, have been shown to reduce risk of cancer progression, enhance therapeutic effects and suppress cancer recurrence. Here, we have reviewed recent studies focusing on the roles of THs and TRs in five cancer types and further discussed the potential therapeutic applications and underlying molecular mechanisms of THs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chin Liu
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.
| | - Chau-Ting Yeh
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.
| | - Kwang-Huei Lin
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.
- Research Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Chen CY, Wu SM, Lin YH, Chi HC, Lin SL, Yeh CT, Chuang WY, Lin KH. Induction of nuclear protein-1 by thyroid hormone enhances platelet-derived growth factor A mediated angiogenesis in liver cancer. Am J Cancer Res 2019; 9:2361-2379. [PMID: 31149049 PMCID: PMC6531305 DOI: 10.7150/thno.29628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background & Aims: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among the leading causes of cancer deaths worldwide. Many studies indicate that disruption of cellular thyroid hormone signaling promotes HCC progression. However, the mechanisms underlying the regulation of genes downstream of thyroid hormone actions in HCC have remained elusive. In the current study, we identified NUPR1 (nuclear protein-1), a stress-induced protein that overexpresses in various neoplasia, is upregulated by triiodothyronine/thyroid hormone receptor (T3/TR) signaling and aimed to elucidate its role in angiogenesis in cancer progression. Methods: Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR, luciferase promoter and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays were performed to identify the NUPR1 regulatory mechanism by T3/TR. In vitro and In vivo vascular formations were performed to detect the angiogenic function of NUPR1. Human angiogenesis arrays were performed to identify the downstream angiogenic pathway. The sorafenib resistant ability of TR/NUPR1 was further examined in vitro and in vivo. Clinical relevance of TR, NUPR1 and platelet-derived growth factor A (PDGFA) were investigate in HCC samples using qRT-PCR and western blot. Results: Our experiments disclosed positive regulation of NUPR1 expression by T3/TR through direct binding to the -2066 to -1910 region of the NUPR1 promoter. Elevated NUPR1 and TR expression link to poor survival in clinical HCC specimens. An analysis of clinicopathological parameters showed that expression of NUPR1 is associated with vascular invasion and pathology stage. Functional studies revealed that NUPR1 induced endothelial cell angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Using a human angiogenesis array, we identified PDGFA as a target of NUPR1 in the downstream angiogenic pathway. NUPR1 induced transcription of PDGFA through direct binding to the corresponding promoter region, and inhibition of the PDGFA signaling pathway impaired angiogenesis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Notably, the angiogenic effects of NUPR1/PDGFA were mediated by the MEK/ERK signaling pathway. TR/NUPR1 expression increased cell viability and resistance to sorafenib treatment. Moreover NUPR1 expression was positively correlated with TRα, TRβ, and PDGFA expression. Conclusions: We propose that the T3/TR/NUPR1/PDGFA/MEK/ERK axis has a vital role in hepatocarcinogenesis and suggest NUPR1 as a potential therapeutic target in HCC.
Collapse
|
25
|
Chi HC, Tsai CY, Tsai MM, Yeh CT, Lin KH. Molecular functions and clinical impact of thyroid hormone-triggered autophagy in liver-related diseases. J Biomed Sci 2019; 26:24. [PMID: 30849993 PMCID: PMC6407245 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-019-0517-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The liver is controlled by several metabolic hormones, including thyroid hormone, and characteristically displays high lysosomal activity as well as metabolic stress-triggered autophagy, which is stringently regulated by the levels of hormones and metabolites. Hepatic autophagy provides energy through catabolism of glucose, amino acids and free fatty acids for starved cells, facilitating the generation of new macromolecules and maintenance of the quantity and quality of cellular organelles, such as mitochondria. Dysregulation of autophagy and defective mitochondrial homeostasis contribute to hepatocyte injury and liver-related diseases, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and liver cancer. Thyroid hormones (TH) mediate several critical physiological processes including organ development, cell differentiation, metabolism and cell growth and maintenance. Accumulating evidence has revealed dysregulation of cellular TH activity as the underlying cause of several liver-related diseases, including alcoholic or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and liver cancer. Data from epidemiologic, animal and clinical studies collectively support preventive functions of THs in liver-related diseases, highlighting the therapeutic potential of TH analogs. Elucidation of the molecular mechanisms and downstream targets of TH should thus facilitate the development of therapeutic strategies for a number of major public health issues. Here, we have reviewed recent studies focusing on the involvement of THs in hepatic homeostasis through induction of autophagy and their implications in liver-related diseases. Additionally, the potential underlying molecular pathways and therapeutic applications of THs in NAFLD and HCC are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hsiang-Cheng Chi
- Radiation Biology Research Center, Institute for Radiological Research, Chang Gung University/Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Ying Tsai
- Kidney Research Center and Department of Nephrology, Chang Gung Immunology Consortium, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Ming Tsai
- Department of Nursing, Chang-Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan, Taiwan, 333.,Department of General Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi, Taiwan, 613.,Research Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology , Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chau-Ting Yeh
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan, 333
| | - Kwang-Huei Lin
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan, 333. .,Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1 Road, Taoyuan, 333, Taiwan, Republic of China. .,Research Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology , Taoyuan, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Gionfra F, De Vito P, Pallottini V, Lin HY, Davis PJ, Pedersen JZ, Incerpi S. The Role of Thyroid Hormones in Hepatocyte Proliferation and Liver Cancer. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:532. [PMID: 31543862 PMCID: PMC6730500 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormones T3 and T4 (thyroxine) control a wide variety of effects related to development, differentiation, growth and metabolism, through their interaction with nuclear receptors. But thyroid hormones also produce non-genomic effects that typically start at the plasma membrane and are mediated mainly by integrin αvβ3, although other receptors such as TRα and TRβ are also able to elicit non-genomic responses. In the liver, the effects of thyroid hormones appear to be particularly important. The liver is able to regenerate, but it is subject to pathologies that may lead to cancer, such as fibrosis, cirrhosis, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. In addition, cancer cells undergo a reprogramming of their metabolism, resulting in drastic changes such as aerobic glycolysis instead of oxidative phosphorylation. As a consequence, the pyruvate kinase isoform M2, the rate-limiting enzyme of glycolysis, is dysregulated, and this is considered an important factor in tumorigenesis. Redox equilibrium is also important, in fact cancer cells give rise to the production of more reactive oxygen species (ROS) than normal cells. This increase may favor the survival and propagation of cancer cells. We evaluate the possible mechanisms involving the plasma membrane receptor integrin αvβ3 that may lead to cancer progression. Studying diseases that affect the liver and their experimental models may help to unravel the cellular pathways mediated by integrin αvβ3 that can lead to liver cancer. Inhibitors of integrin αvβ3 might represent a future therapeutic tool against liver cancer. We also include information on the possible role of exosomes in liver cancer, as well as on recent strategies such as organoids and spheroids, which may provide a new tool for research, drug discovery, and personalized medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Gionfra
- Department of Sciences, University Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo De Vito
- Department of Biology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Hung-Yun Lin
- Ph.D. Program for Cancer Molecular Biology and Drug Discovery, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Taipei Cancer Center, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Rensselaer, NY, United States
- Traditional Herbal Medicine Research Center of Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Medicine, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Paul J. Davis
- Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Rensselaer, NY, United States
- Department of Medicine, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY, United States
| | - Jens Z. Pedersen
- Department of Biology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Sandra Incerpi
- Department of Sciences, University Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Sandra Incerpi
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Kowalik MA, Columbano A, Perra A. Thyroid Hormones, Thyromimetics and Their Metabolites in the Treatment of Liver Disease. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:382. [PMID: 30042736 PMCID: PMC6048875 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The signaling pathways activated by thyroid hormone receptors (THR) are of fundamental importance for organogenesis, growth and differentiation, and significantly influence energy metabolism, lipid utilization and glucose homeostasis. Pharmacological control of these pathways would likely impact the treatment of several human diseases characterized by altered metabolism, growth or differentiation. Not surprisingly, biomedical research has been trying for the past decades to pharmacologically target the 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3)/THR axis. In vitro and in vivo studies have provided evidence of the potential utility of the activation of the T3-dependent pathways in metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Unfortunately, supra-physiological doses of the THR agonist T3 cause severe thyrotoxicosis thus hampering its therapeutic use. However, the observation that most of the desired beneficial effects of T3 are mediated by the activation of the beta isoform of THR (THRβ) in metabolically active organs has led to the synthesis of a number of THRβ-selective thyromimetics. Among these drugs, GC-1, GC-24, KB141, KB2115, and MB07344 displayed a promising therapeutic strategy for liver diseases. However, although these drugs exhibited encouraging results when tested in the treatment of experimentally-induced obesity, dyslipidemia, and HCC, significant adverse effects limited their use in clinical trials. More recently, evidence has been provided that some metabolites of thyroid hormones (TH), mono and diiodothyronines, could also play a role in the treatment of liver disease. These molecules, for a long time considered inactive byproducts of the metabolism of thyroid hormones, have now been proposed to be able to modulate and control lipid and cell energy metabolism. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge regarding T3, its metabolites and analogs with reference to their possible clinical application in the treatment of liver disease. In particular, we will focus our attention on NAFLD, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and HCC. In addition, the possible therapeutic use of mono- and diiodothyronines in metabolic and/or neoplastic liver disease will be discussed.
Collapse
|
28
|
Columbano A, Chiellini G, Kowalik MA. GC-1: A Thyromimetic With Multiple Therapeutic Applications in Liver Disease. Gene Expr 2017; 17:265-275. [PMID: 28635586 PMCID: PMC5885148 DOI: 10.3727/105221617x14968563796227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Thyroid hormones (THs), namely, 3,5,3'-triiodo-l-thyronine (T3) and 3,5,3',5'-tetraiodo-l-thyronine (thyroxine or T4), influence a variety of physiological processes that have important implications in fetal development, metabolism, cell growth, and proliferation. While THs elicit several beneficial effects on lipid metabolism and improve myocardial contractility, these therapeutically desirable effects are associated to a thyrotoxic state that severely limits the possible use of THs as therapeutic agents. Therefore, several efforts have been made to develop T3 analogs that could retain the beneficial actions (triglyceride, cholesterol, obesity, and body mass lowering) without the adverse TH-dependent side effects. This goal was achieved by the synthesis of TRβ-selective agonists. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the effects of one of the best characterized TH analogs, the TRβ1-selective thyromimetic, GC-1. In particular, we review some of the effects of GC-1 on different liver disorders, with reference to its possible clinical application. A brief comment on the possible therapeutic use of GC-1 in extrahepatic disorders is also included.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amedeo Columbano
- *Department of Biomedical Sciences, Unit of Oncology and Molecular Pathology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Grazia Chiellini
- †Department of Surgical, Medical and Molecular Pathology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Marta Anna Kowalik
- *Department of Biomedical Sciences, Unit of Oncology and Molecular Pathology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Huang PS, Lin YH, Chi HC, Chen PY, Huang YH, Yeh CT, Wang CS, Lin KH. Thyroid hormone inhibits growth of hepatoma cells through induction of miR-214. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14868. [PMID: 29093516 PMCID: PMC5665905 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14864-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone (TH) plays a role in regulating the metabolic rate, heart functions, muscle control and maintenance of bones. 3,3′5-tri-iodo-L-thyronine (T3) displays high affinity to nuclear thyroid hormone receptors (TRs), which mediate most TH actions. Recent studies have shown hypothyroidism in patients with an increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a class of non-protein-coding RNA, are suggested to control tumor growth by interacting with target genes. However, the clinical significance of T3/TR-regulated miRNAs in tumors has yet to be established. In the current study, miRNA expression profile screening was performed using SYBR Green-Based qRT-PCR array in TR-overexpressing HepG2 cells. miR-214-3p, which is expressed at low levels in HCC, was stimulated upon T3 application. The 3′UTR luciferase reporter assay confirmed that the proto-oncogene serine/threonine-protein kinase, PIM-1, is a miR-214-3p target. PIM-1 was decreased upon treatment with miR-214-3p or T3 stimulation. PIM-1 was highly expressed in HCC, and the effect of PIM-1 on cell proliferation might be mediated by the inhibition of p21. Furthermore, the T3-induced suppression of cell proliferation was partially rescued upon miR-214-3p knockdown. Our data demonstrate that T3 induces miR-214-3p expression and suppresses cell proliferation through PIM-1, thus contributing to the inhibition of HCC tumor formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Po-Shuan Huang
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, 333, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yang-Hsiang Lin
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, 333, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Hsiang-Cheng Chi
- Radiation Biology Research Center, Institute for Radiological Research, Chang Gung University/Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, 333, Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Yu Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, 333, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Hui Huang
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, 333, Linko, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chau-Ting Yeh
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, 333, Linko, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Siu Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chiayi, 613, Taiwan.
| | - Kwang-Huei Lin
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, 333, Taoyuan, Taiwan. .,Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, 333, Linko, Taoyuan, Taiwan. .,Research Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, 333, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Puliga E, Min Q, Tao J, Zhang R, Pradhan-Sundd T, Poddar M, Singh S, Columbano A, Yu J, Monga SP. Thyroid Hormone Receptor-β Agonist GC-1 Inhibits Met-β-Catenin-Driven Hepatocellular Cancer. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2017; 187:2473-2485. [PMID: 28807594 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2017] [Revised: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The thyromimetic agent GC-1 induces hepatocyte proliferation via Wnt/β-catenin signaling and may promote regeneration in both acute and chronic liver insufficiencies. However, β-catenin activation due to mutations in CTNNB1 is seen in a subset of hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC). Thus, it is critical to address any effect of GC-1 on HCC growth and development before its use can be advocated to stimulate regeneration in chronic liver diseases. In this study, we first examined the effect of GC-1 on β-catenin-T cell factor 4 activity in HCC cell lines harboring wild-type or mutated-CTNNB1. Next, we assessed the effect of GC-1 on HCC in FVB mice generated by hydrodynamic tail vein injection of hMet-S45Y-β-catenin, using the sleeping beauty transposon-transposase. Four weeks following injection, mice were fed 5 mg/kg GC-1 or basal diet for 10 or 21 days. GC-1 treatment showed no effect on β-catenin-T cell factor 4 activity in HCC cells, irrespective of CTNNB1 mutations. Treatment with GC-1 for 10 or 21 days led to a significant reduction in tumor burden, associated with decreased tumor cell proliferation and dramatic decreases in phospho-(p-)Met (Y1234/1235), p-extracellular signal-related kinase, and p-STAT3 without affecting β-catenin and its downstream targets. GC-1 exerts a notable antitumoral effect on hMet-S45Y-β-catenin HCC by inactivating Met signaling. GC-1 does not promote β-catenin activation in HCC. Thus, GC-1 may be safe for use in inducing regeneration during chronic hepatic insufficiency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Puliga
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Qian Min
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Oncology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Junyan Tao
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Rong Zhang
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Tirthadipa Pradhan-Sundd
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Minakshi Poddar
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Sucha Singh
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Amedeo Columbano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Jinming Yu
- Department of Oncology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China; Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Shandong Academy of Medical Science, Jinan, China.
| | - Satdarshan P Monga
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Pittsburgh Liver Research Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Chi HC, Chen SL, Cheng YH, Lin TK, Tsai CY, Tsai MM, Lin YH, Huang YH, Lin KH. Chemotherapy resistance and metastasis-promoting effects of thyroid hormone in hepatocarcinoma cells are mediated by suppression of FoxO1 and Bim pathway. Cell Death Dis 2016; 7:e2324. [PMID: 27490929 PMCID: PMC5108316 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2016.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, and systemic chemotherapy is the major treatment strategy for late-stage HCC patients. Poor prognosis following chemotherapy is the general outcome owing to recurrent resistance. Recent studies have suggested that in addition to cytotoxic effects on tumor cells, chemotherapy can induce an alternative cascade that supports tumor growth and metastasis. In the present investigation, we showed that thyroid hormone (TH), a potent hormone-mediating cellular differentiation and metabolism, acts as an antiapoptosis factor upon challenge of thyroid hormone receptor (TR)-expressing HCC cells with cancer therapy drugs, including cisplatin, doxorubicin and tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL). TH/TR signaling promoted chemotherapy resistance through negatively regulating the pro-apoptotic protein, Bim, resulting in doxorubicin-induced metastasis of chemotherapy-resistant HCC cells. Ectopic expression of Bim in hepatoma cells challenged with chemotherapeutic drugs abolished TH/TR-triggered apoptosis resistance and metastasis. Furthermore, Bim expression was directly transactivated by Forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1), which was negatively regulated by TH/TR. TH/TR suppressed FoxO1 activity through both transcriptional downregulation and nuclear exclusion of FoxO1 triggered by Akt-mediated phosphorylation. Ectopic expression of the constitutively active FoxO1 mutant, FoxO1-AAA, but not FoxO1-wt, diminished the suppressive effect of TH/TR on Bim. Our findings collectively suggest that expression of Bim is mediated by FoxO1 and indirectly downregulated by TH/TR, leading to chemotherapy resistance and doxorubicin-promoted metastasis of hepatoma cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hsiang-Cheng Chi
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Shen-Liang Chen
- Department of Life Sciences, National Central University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yi-Hung Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Kang Lin
- Division of Neurosurgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital Linkou and Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chung-Ying Tsai
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Ming Tsai
- Department of Nursing, Chang-Gung University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.,Department of General Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital Chiayi 613, Taiwan
| | - Yang-Hsiang Lin
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Hui Huang
- Liver Research Center, Department of Hepato-Gastroenterology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| | - Kwang-Huei Lin
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan.,Liver Research Center, Department of Hepato-Gastroenterology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Wu XG, Zhang SJ, Wang ST. Significance of changes in thyroid and gonadal function in patients with chronic liver diseases. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2016; 24:1438-1443. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v24.i9.1438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate the changes in thyroid and gonadal function in patients with chronic liver diseases and to explore the relationship between serum thyroid and gonadal hormone levels and severity of chronic liver diseases.
METHODS: Serum thyroid and gonadal hormone levels were measured by chemiluminescence method in 162 male cases with chronic liver diseases. Patients with chronic liver diseases were divided into a cirrhosis group and a non-cirrhosis group, and cirrhosis was graded by Child-Pugh score (A, B, C).
RESULTS: Thyroid dysfunction was present in ~13% of patients with chronic liver diseases. Serum total T3 and free T3 levels in patients with chronic liver diseases were significantly lower than those of the control group (1.73 nmol/L ± 0.38 nmol/L vs 2.59 nmol/L ± 0.46 nmol/L, 4.09 pmol/L ± 1.35 pmol/L vs 5.23 pmol/L ± 1.56 pmol/L, P < 0.01). Cirrhotic patients had significantly lower serum total T3 and free T3 levels than non-cirrhotic patients (0.96 nmol/L ± 0.33 nmol/L vs 1.84 nmol/L ± 0.32 nmol/L, 3.02 pmol/L ± 1.10 pmol/L vs 4.33 pmol/L ± 1.42 pmol/L, P < 0.01). Serum total T3, T4 and free T3 and T4 levels in cirrhotic cases with Child-Pugh B or C grade were significantly lower than those of Child-Pugh A grade cases. Chronic liver diseases were more serious in patients with low T3 syndrome than in those without. Approximately 42% of patients with chronic liver diseases had secondary gonadal dysfunction. Serum testosterone levels were significantly lower and estrogen levels were significantly higher in patients with chronic liver disease than in the control group (4.36 ng/mL ± 2.12 ng/mL vs 7.85 ng/mL ± 3.31 ng/mL, 45.53 pg/mL ± 18.79 pg/mL vs 32.26 pg/mL ± 12.19 pg/mL, P < 0.01). Serum testosterone levels were significantly lower and estrogen levels were significantly higher in cirrhotic cases with Child-Pugh B and C grades than in Child-Pugh A grade cases. Chronic liver diseases were more serious in patients with secondary gonadal dysfunction than in those without.
CONCLUSION: Thyroid and gonadal dysfunction is present in patients with chronic liver diseases, so the determination of thyroid and sex hormones has important value for the evaluation of severity and prognosis of the disease.
Collapse
|
33
|
Anastasiou O, Sydor S, Sowa JP, Manka P, Katsounas A, Syn WK, Führer D, Gieseler RK, Bechmann LP, Gerken G, Moeller LC, Canbay A. Higher Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, Triiodothyronine and Thyroxine Values Are Associated with Better Outcome in Acute Liver Failure. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0132189. [PMID: 26147961 PMCID: PMC4493082 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Changes in thyroid hormone levels, mostly as non-thyroidal illness syndrome (NTIS), have been described in many diseases. However, the relationship between acute liver failure (ALF) and thyroid hormone levels has not yet been clarified. The present study evaluates potential correlations of select thyroid functional parameters with ALF. Methods 84 consecutively recruited ALF patients were grouped according to the outcome of ALF (spontaneous recovery: SR; transplantation or death: NSR). TSH, free thyroxine (fT4), free triiodothyronine (fT3), T4, and T3 were determined. Results More than 50% of patients with ALF presented with abnormal thyroid parameters. These patients had greater risk for an adverse outcome than euthyroid patients. SR patients had significantly higher TSH, T4, and T3 concentrations than NSR patients. Albumin concentrations were significantly higher in SR than in NSR. In vitro T3 treatment was not able to rescue primary human hepatocytes from acetaminophen induced changes in mRNA expression. Conclusions In patients with ALF, TSH and total thyroid hormone levels differed significantly between SR patients and NSR patients. This might be related to diminished liver-derived transport proteins, such as albumin, in more severe forms of ALF. Thyroid parameters may serve as additional indicators of ALF severity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olympia Anastasiou
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
| | - Svenja Sydor
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
| | - Jan-Peter Sowa
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
| | - Paul Manka
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
- Regeneration and Repair Group, The Institute of Hepatology, London, WC1E 6HX, United Kingdom
| | - Antonios Katsounas
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
| | - Wing-Kin Syn
- Regeneration and Repair Group, The Institute of Hepatology, London, WC1E 6HX, United Kingdom
- Liver Unit, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dagmar Führer
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
| | - Robert K. Gieseler
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
- Rodos BioTarget GmbH, Medical Park Hannover, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Lars P. Bechmann
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
| | - Guido Gerken
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
| | - Lars C. Moeller
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
| | - Ali Canbay
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital, University Duisburg, Essen, 45122, Essen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Evaluation of the selenotranscriptome expression in two hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. Anal Cell Pathol (Amst) 2015. [PMID: 26199857 PMCID: PMC4493270 DOI: 10.1155/2015/419561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of liver cancer and is still one of the most fatal cancers. Hence, it needs to identify always new putative markers to improve its diagnosis and prognosis. Since the selenium is able to fight the oxidative damage which is one of the major origins of cell damage as well as cancer, we have recently focused our attention on selenoprotein family and their involvement in HCC. In the present paper we have carried out a global analysis of the selenotranscriptome expression in HepG2 and Huh7 cells compared to the normal human hepatocytes by reverse transcription-qPCR (RT-qPCR). Our data showed that in both cells there are three downregulated (DIO1, DIO2, and SELO) and ten upregulated (GPX4, GPX7, SELK, SELM, SELN, SELT, SELV, SEP15, SEPW1, and TrxR1) genes. Additionally, interactomic studies were carried out to evaluate the ability of these down- and upregulated genes to interact between them as well as to identify putative HUB nodes representing the centers of correlation able to exercise a direct control over the coordinated genes.
Collapse
|