1
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Urban M, Rosati G, Maroli G, Pelle FD, Bonini A, Sajti L, Fedel M, Merkoçi A. Nanostructure Tuning of Gold Nanoparticles Films via Click Sintering. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023:e2306167. [PMID: 37963854 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202306167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
Colloidal metal nanoparticles dispersions are commonly used to create functional printed electronic devices and they typically require time-, energy- and equipment-consuming post-treatments to improve their electrical and mechanical properties. Traditional methods, e.g. thermal, UV/IR, and microwave treatments, limit the substrate options and may require expensive equipment, not available in all the laboratories. Moreover, these processes also cause the collapse of the film (nano)pores and interstices, limiting or impeding its nanostructuration. Finding a simple approach to obtain complex nanostructured materials with minimal post-treatments remains a challenge. In this study, a new sintering method for gold nanoparticle inks that called as "click sintering" has been reported. The method uses a catalytic reaction to enhance and tune the nanostructuration of the film while sintering the metallic nanoparticles, without requiring any cumbersome post-treatment. This results in a conductive and electroactive nanoporous thin film, whose properties can be tuned by the conditions of the reaction, i.e., concentration of the reagent and time. Therefore, this study presents a novel and innovative one-step approach to simultaneously sinter gold nanoparticles films and create functional nanostructures, directly and easily, introducing a new concept of real-time treatment with possible applications in the fields of flexible electronics, biosensing, energy, and catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Urban
- Nanobioelectronics and Biosensors Group, Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Doctorado en Biotecnología, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de la UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Giulio Rosati
- Nanobioelectronics and Biosensors Group, Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Gabriel Maroli
- Nanobioelectronics and Biosensors Group, Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
| | - Flavio Della Pelle
- Nanobioelectronics and Biosensors Group, Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Department of Bioscience and Technology for Food, Agriculture, and Environment, University of Teramo, Campus "Aurelio Saliceti" via R. Balzarini 1, Teramo, 64100, Italy
| | - Andrea Bonini
- Nanobioelectronics and Biosensors Group, Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, Pisa, 56124, Italy
| | - Laszlo Sajti
- Nano-Engineering Group, RHP Technology GmbH, Seibersdorf, 2444, Austria
| | - Mariangela Fedel
- Nano-Engineering Group, RHP Technology GmbH, Seibersdorf, 2444, Austria
| | - Arben Merkoçi
- Nanobioelectronics and Biosensors Group, Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2), Campus UAB, Bellaterra, Barcelona, 08193, Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Passeig de Lluís Companys, 23, Barcelona, 08010, Spain
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2
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Islam MS, Banik S, Collinson MM. Recent Advances in Bimetallic Nanoporous Gold Electrodes for Electrochemical Sensing. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:2515. [PMID: 37764545 PMCID: PMC10535497 DOI: 10.3390/nano13182515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Bimetallic nanocomposites and nanoparticles have received tremendous interest recently because they often exhibit better properties than single-component materials. Improved electron transfer rates and the synergistic interactions between individual metals are two of the most beneficial attributes of these materials. In this review, we focus on bimetallic nanoporous gold (NPG) because of its importance in the field of electrochemical sensing coupled with the ease with which it can be made. NPG is a particularly important scaffold because of its unique properties, including biofouling resistance and ease of modification. In this review, several different methods to synthesize NPG, along with varying modification approaches are described. These include the use of ternary alloys, immersion-reduction (chemical, electrochemical, hybrid), co-electrodeposition-annealing, and under-potential deposition coupled with surface-limited redox replacement of NPG with different metal nanoparticles (e.g., Pt, Cu, Pd, Ni, Co, Fe, etc.). The review also describes the importance of fully characterizing these bimetallic nanocomposites and critically analyzing their structure, surface morphology, surface composition, and application in electrochemical sensing of chemical and biochemical species. The authors attempt to highlight the most recent and advanced techniques for designing non-enzymatic bimetallic electrochemical nanosensors. The review opens up a window for readers to obtain detailed knowledge about the formation and structure of bimetallic electrodes and their applications in electrochemical sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Maryanne M. Collinson
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284-2006, USA; (M.S.I.); (S.B.)
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3
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Bakhoum EG, Zhang C. Field Effect Transistor with Nanoporous Gold Electrode. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:1135. [PMID: 37374719 DOI: 10.3390/mi14061135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Nanoporous gold (NPG) has excellent catalytic activity and has been used in the recent literature on this issue as a sensor in various electrochemical and bioelectrochemical reactions. This paper reports on a new type of metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) that utilizes NPG as a gate electrode. Both n-channel and p-channel MOSFETs with NPG gate electrodes have been fabricated. The MOSFETs can be used as sensors and the results of two experiments are reported: the detection of glucose and the detection of carbon monoxide. A detailed comparison of the performance of the new MOSFET to that of the older generation of MOSFETs fitted with zinc oxide gate electrodes is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ezzat G Bakhoum
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
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4
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Zamani M, Klapperich CM, Furst AL. Recent advances in gold electrode fabrication for low-resource setting biosensing. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:1410-1419. [PMID: 36602146 PMCID: PMC9977368 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00552b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Gold electrodes are some of the most prevalent electrochemical biosensor substrate materials because they are readily functionalized with thiolated biomolecules. Yet, conventional methods to fabricate gold electrodes are costly and require onerous equipment, precluding them from implementation in low-resource settings (LRS). Recently, a number of alternative gold electrode fabrication methods have been developed to simplify and lower the cost of manufacturing. These methods include screen and inkjet printing as well as physical fabrication with common materials such as wire or gold leaf. All electrodes generated with these methods have successfully been functionalized with thiolated molecules, demonstrating their suitability for use in biosensors. Here, we detail recent advances in the fabrication, characterization and functionalization of these next-generation gold electrodes, with an emphasis on comparisons between cost and complexity with traditional cleanroom fabrication. We highlight gold leaf electrodes for their potential in LRS. This class of electrodes is anticipated to be broadly applicable beyond LRS due to their numerous inherent advantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjon Zamani
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA.
| | - Catherine M Klapperich
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA.
| | - Ariel L Furst
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
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5
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Vrabelj T, Finšgar M. Recent Progress in Non-Enzymatic Electroanalytical Detection of Pesticides Based on the Use of Functional Nanomaterials as Electrode Modifiers. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:263. [PMID: 35624564 PMCID: PMC9139166 DOI: 10.3390/bios12050263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
This review presents recent advances in the non-enzymatic electrochemical detection and quantification of pesticides, focusing on the use of nanomaterial-based electrode modifiers and their corresponding analytical response. The use of bare glassy carbon electrodes, carbon paste electrodes, screen-printed electrodes, and other electrodes in this research area is presented. The sensors were modified with single nanomaterials, a binary composite, or triple and multiple nanocomposites applied to the electrodes' surfaces using various application techniques. Regardless of the type of electrode used and the class of pesticides analysed, carbon-based nanomaterials, metal, and metal oxide nanoparticles are investigated mainly for electrochemical analysis because they have a high surface-to-volume ratio and, thus, a large effective area, high conductivity, and (electro)-chemical stability. This work demonstrates the progress made in recent years in the non-enzymatic electrochemical analysis of pesticides. The need for simultaneous detection of multiple pesticides with high sensitivity, low limit of detection, high precision, and high accuracy remains a challenge in analytical chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Matjaž Finšgar
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova ulica 17, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia;
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6
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Gold Nanoparticles/Carbon Nanotubes and Gold Nanoporous as Novel Electrochemical Platforms for L-Ascorbic Acid Detection: Comparative Performance and Application. CHEMOSENSORS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors9080229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Herein, the effects of nanostructured modifications of a gold electrode surface in the development of electrochemical sensors for L-ascorbic acid detection have been investigated. In particular, a bare gold electrode has been modified by electrodeposition of gold single-walled carbon nanotubes (Au/SWCNTs) and by the formation of a highly nanoporous gold (h-nPG) film. The procedure has been realized by sweeping the potential between +0.8 V and 0 V vs. Ag/AgCl for 25 scans in a suspension containing 5 mg/mL of SWCNTs in 10 mM HAuCl4 and 2.5 M NH4Cl solution for Au/SWCNTs modified gold electrode. A similar procedure was applied for a h-nPG electrode in a 10 mM HAuCl4 solution containing 2.5 M NH4Cl, followed by applying a fixed potential of −4 V vs. Ag/AgCl for 60 s. Cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were used to characterize the properties of the modified electrodes. The developed sensors showed strong electrocatalytic activity towards ascorbic acid oxidation with enhanced sensitivities of 1.7 × 10−2 μA μM−1cm−2 and 2.5 × 10−2 μA μM−1cm−2 for Au/SWCNTs and h-nPG modified electrode, respectively, compared to bare gold electrode (1.0 × 10−2 μA μM−1cm−2). The detection limits were estimated to be 3.1 and 1.8 μM, respectively. The h-nPG electrode was successfully used to determine ascorbic acid in human urine with no significant interference and with satisfactory recovery levels.
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7
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Lim J, Ham J, Lee W, Hwang E, Lee WC, Hong S. A Transformative Gold Patterning through Selective Laser Refining of Cyanide. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11081921. [PMID: 34443754 PMCID: PMC8400824 DOI: 10.3390/nano11081921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Gold is an essential noble metal for electronics, and its application area is increasing continuously through the introduction of gold nanoparticle ink that enables rapid prototyping and direct writing of gold electrodes on versatile substrates at a low temperature. However, the synthesis of gold nanoparticles has certain limitations involving high cost, long synthesis time, large waste of material, and frequent use of chemicals. In this study, we suggest simultaneous laser refining of gold cyanide and selective fabrication of gold electrodes directly on the substrate without a separate synthesis step. Gold cyanide is commonly the first product of gold from the primitive ore, and the gold can be extracted directly from the rapid photothermal decomposition of gold cyanide by the laser. It was confirmed that laser-induced thermocapillary force plays an important role in creating the continuous gold patterns by aligning the refined gold. The resultant gold electrodes exhibited a low resistivity analogous to the conventional direct writing method using nanoparticles, and the facile repair process of a damaged electrode was demonstrated as the proof-of-concept. The proposed transformative approach for gold patterning, distinguished from the previous top-down and bottom-up approaches, has the potential to replace the well-known techniques and provide a new branch of electrode manufacturing scheme.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Won Chul Lee
- Correspondence: (W.C.L.); (S.H.); Tel.: +82-31-400-5257 (W.C.L.); +82-31-400-5249 (S.H.)
| | - Sukjoon Hong
- Correspondence: (W.C.L.); (S.H.); Tel.: +82-31-400-5257 (W.C.L.); +82-31-400-5249 (S.H.)
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8
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Zupančič U, Rainbow J, Estrela P, Moschou D. Utilising Commercially Fabricated Printed Circuit Boards as an Electrochemical Biosensing Platform. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:mi12070793. [PMID: 34357203 PMCID: PMC8305449 DOI: 10.3390/mi12070793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Printed circuit boards (PCBs) offer a promising platform for the development of electronics-assisted biomedical diagnostic sensors and microsystems. The long-standing industrial basis offers distinctive advantages for cost-effective, reproducible, and easily integrated sample-in-answer-out diagnostic microsystems. Nonetheless, the commercial techniques used in the fabrication of PCBs produce various contaminants potentially degrading severely their stability and repeatability in electrochemical sensing applications. Herein, we analyse for the first time such critical technological considerations, allowing the exploitation of commercial PCB platforms as reliable electrochemical sensing platforms. The presented electrochemical and physical characterisation data reveal clear evidence of both organic and inorganic sensing electrode surface contaminants, which can be removed using various pre-cleaning techniques. We demonstrate that, following such pre-treatment rules, PCB-based electrodes can be reliably fabricated for sensitive electrochemical biosensors. Herein, we demonstrate the applicability of the methodology both for labelled protein (procalcitonin) and label-free nucleic acid (E. coli-specific DNA) biomarker quantification, with observed limits of detection (LoD) of 2 pM and 110 pM, respectively. The proposed optimisation of surface pre-treatment is critical in the development of robust and sensitive PCB-based electrochemical sensors for both clinical and environmental diagnostics and monitoring applications.
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9
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Downs AM, Gerson J, Hossain MN, Ploense K, Pham M, Kraatz HB, Kippin T, Plaxco KW. Nanoporous Gold for the Miniaturization of In Vivo Electrochemical Aptamer-Based Sensors. ACS Sens 2021; 6:2299-2306. [PMID: 34038076 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.1c00354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical aptamer-based sensors enable real-time molecular measurements in the living body. The spatial resolution of these measurements and ability to perform measurements in targeted locations, however, is limited by the length and width of the device's working electrode. Historically, achieving good signal to noise in the complex, noisy in vivo environment has required working electrode lengths of 3-6 mm. To enable sensor miniaturization, here we have enhanced the signaling current obtained for a sensor of given macroscopic dimensions by increasing its surface area. Specifically, we produced nanoporous gold via an electrochemical alloying/dealloying technique to increase the microscopic surface area of our working electrodes by up to 100-fold. Using this approach, we have miniaturized in vivo electrochemical aptamer-based (EAB) sensors (here using sensors against the antibiotic, vancomycin) by a factor of 6 while retaining sensor signal and response times. Conveniently, the fabrication of nanoporous gold is simple, parallelizable, and compatible with both two- and three-dimensional electrode architectures, suggesting that it may be of value to a range of electrochemical biosensor applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M. Downs
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Julian Gerson
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - M. Nur Hossain
- Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Kyle Ploense
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Michael Pham
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Heinz-Bernhard Kraatz
- Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario M1C1A4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, 80 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Tod Kippin
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- The Neuroscience Research Institute and Department of Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kevin W. Plaxco
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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10
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Zamani M, Robson JM, Fan A, Bono MS, Furst AL, Klapperich CM. Electrochemical Strategy for Low-Cost Viral Detection. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2021; 7:963-972. [PMID: 34235257 PMCID: PMC8227598 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Sexually transmitted infections, including the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the human papillomavirus (HPV), disproportionally impact those in low-resource settings. Early diagnosis is essential for managing HIV. Similarly, HPV causes nearly all cases of cervical cancer, the majority (90%) of which occur in low-resource settings. Importantly, infection with HPV is six times more likely to progress to cervical cancer in women who are HIV-positive. An inexpensive, adaptable point-of-care test for viral infections would make screening for these viruses more accessible to a broader set of the population. Here, we report a novel, cost-effective electrochemical platform using gold leaf electrodes to detect clinically relevant viral loads. We have combined this platform with loop-mediated isothermal amplification and a CRISPR-based recognition assay to detect HPV. Lower limits of detection were demonstrated down to 104 total copies of input nucleic acids, which is a clinically relevant viral load for HPV DNA. Further, proof-of-concept experiments with cervical swab samples, extracted using standard extraction protocols, demonstrated that the strategy is extendable to complex human samples. This adaptable technology could be applied to detect any viral infection rapidly and cost-effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjon Zamani
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - James M. Robson
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Andy Fan
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Michael S. Bono
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Ariel L. Furst
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- (A.L.F.)
| | - Catherine M. Klapperich
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
- (C.M.K.)
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11
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Electrochemical Discrimination of Salbutamol from Its Excipients in Ventolin TM at Nanoporous Gold Microdisc Arrays. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21123975. [PMID: 34207616 PMCID: PMC8226559 DOI: 10.3390/s21123975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of specific drug–device combination products in the inhalable pharmaceutical industry demands more sophistication of device functionality in the form of an embedded sensing platform to increase patient safety and extend patent coverage. Controlling the nebuliser function at a miniaturised, integrated electrochemical sensing platform with rapid response time and supporting novel algorithms could deliver such a technology offering. Development of a nanoporous gold (NPG) electrochemical sensor capable of creating a unique fingerprint signal generated by inhalable pharmaceuticals provided the impetus for our study of the electrooxidation of salbutamol, which is the active bronchodilatory ingredient in VentolinTM formulations. It was demonstrated that, at NPG-modified microdisc electrode arrays, salbutamol is distinguishable from the chloride excipient present at 0.0154 M using linear sweep voltammetry and can be detected amperometrically. In contrast, bare gold microdisc electrode arrays cannot afford such discrimination, as the potential for salbutamol oxidation and chloride adsorption reactions overlap. The discriminative power of NPG originates from the nanoconfinement effect for chloride in the internal pores of NPG, which selectively enhances the electron transfer kinetics of this more sluggish reaction relative to that of the faster, diffusion-controlled salbutamol oxidation. Sensing was performed at a fully integrated three-electrode cell-on-chip using Pt as a quasi-reference electrode.
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12
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Lee S, Kim J. Single Potential Scan Methods for Nanoporous Gold Formation on Ultramicroelectrode Surfaces. ELECTROANAL 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.202060621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Siyeon Lee
- Department of Chemistry Chungbuk National University Cheongju Chungbuk 28644 Korea
| | - Jongwon Kim
- Department of Chemistry Chungbuk National University Cheongju Chungbuk 28644 Korea
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13
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Gonzalez‐Martinez E, Saem S(K, Beganovic NE, Moran‐Mirabal J. Fabrication of microstructured electrodes via electroless metal deposition onto polydopamine‐coated polystyrene substrates and thermal shrinking. NANO SELECT 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/nano.202100022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nadine E. Beganovic
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology McMaster University Hamilton Canada
| | - Jose Moran‐Mirabal
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology McMaster University Hamilton Canada
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14
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Melo FCC, Rodrigues LP, Feliciano ND, Costa-Cruz JM, Ribeiro VS, Matias-Colombo BF, Alves-Balvedi RP, Goulart LR. Strongyloidiasis Serological Analysis with Three Different Biological Probes and Their Electrochemical Responses in a Screen-Printed Gold Electrode. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:1931. [PMID: 33801807 PMCID: PMC8000320 DOI: 10.3390/s21061931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
(1) Background: The validation of biological antigens is the study's utmost goal in biomedical applications. We evaluated three different probes with single and multiple epitopes through electrochemical detection of specific IgG in serum for human strongyloidiasis diagnosis. (2) Methods: Screen-printed gold electrodes were used and probes consisting of two single-epitope synthetic peptides (D3 and C10) with different sequences, and a multi-epitope antigen [detergent phase (DP)-hydrophobic membrane proteins]. Human serum samples from three populations were used: Strongyloides stercoralis positive, positive for other parasitic infections and negative controls. To test the immobilization of probes onto a screen-printed gold electrode and the serum IgG detection, electrochemical analyses were carried out through differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and the electrode surface analyses were recorded using atomic force microscopy. (3) Results: The electrochemical response in screen-printed gold electrodes of peptides D3 and C10 when using positive serum was significantly higher than that when using the DP. Our sensor improved sensitivity to detect strongyloidiasis. (4) Conclusions: Probes' sequences are critical factors for differential electrochemical responses, and the D3 peptide presented the best electrochemical performance for strongyloidiasis detection, and may efficiently substitute whole antigen extracts from parasites for strongyloidiasis diagnosis in electrochemical immunosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francielli C. C. Melo
- National Agency for Health Surveillance-Brasília, SIA Trecho 5, Área Especial 57, Bloco A/B, 1° Andar, Brasília, DF 71205-050, Brazil;
| | - Luciano P. Rodrigues
- Institute of Engineering, Science and Technology, Federal University of the Jequitinhonha and Vale de Mucuri, Av. Um, n. 4.050—Cidade Universitária, Janaúba, MG 39447-790, Brazil;
| | - Nágilla D. Feliciano
- Laboratory of Parasite Diagnosis, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlandia, Av. Amazonas s/n Bl. 4C, sl. 239, Uberlândia, MG 38400-902, Brazil; (N.D.F.); (J.M.C.-C.); (V.S.R.)
| | - Julia M. Costa-Cruz
- Laboratory of Parasite Diagnosis, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlandia, Av. Amazonas s/n Bl. 4C, sl. 239, Uberlândia, MG 38400-902, Brazil; (N.D.F.); (J.M.C.-C.); (V.S.R.)
| | - Vanessa S. Ribeiro
- Laboratory of Parasite Diagnosis, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlandia, Av. Amazonas s/n Bl. 4C, sl. 239, Uberlândia, MG 38400-902, Brazil; (N.D.F.); (J.M.C.-C.); (V.S.R.)
| | - Bruna F. Matias-Colombo
- Laboratory of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Federal University of Uberlandia, Av. Amazonas s/n Bl. 2E, sl. 248, Uberlândia, MG 38402-022, Brazil; (B.F.M.-C.); (L.R.G.)
| | - Renata P. Alves-Balvedi
- Biological Science, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Rua Antônio Baiano, n 150, Iturama, MG 38280-000, Brazil
| | - Luiz R. Goulart
- Laboratory of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Federal University of Uberlandia, Av. Amazonas s/n Bl. 2E, sl. 248, Uberlândia, MG 38402-022, Brazil; (B.F.M.-C.); (L.R.G.)
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15
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Freeman CJ, Ullah B, Islam MS, Collinson MM. Potentiometric Biosensing of Ascorbic Acid, Uric Acid, and Cysteine in Microliter Volumes Using Miniaturized Nanoporous Gold Electrodes. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2020; 11:bios11010010. [PMID: 33379137 PMCID: PMC7823660 DOI: 10.3390/bios11010010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Potentiometric redox sensing is a relatively inexpensive and passive approach to evaluate the overall redox state of complex biological and environmental solutions. The ability to make such measurements in ultra-small volumes using high surface area, nanoporous electrodes is of particular importance as such electrodes can improve the rates of electron transfer and reduce the effects of biofouling on the electrochemical signal. This work focuses on the fabrication of miniaturized nanoporous gold (NPG) electrodes with a high surface area and a small footprint for the potentiometric redox sensing of three biologically relevant redox molecules (ascorbic acid, uric acid, and cysteine) in microliter volumes. The NPG electrodes were inexpensively made by attaching a nanoporous gold leaf prepared by dealloying 12K gold in nitric acid to a modified glass capillary (1.5 mm id) and establishing an electrode connection with copper tape. The surface area of the electrodes was ~1.5 cm2, providing a roughness factor of ~16 relative to the geometric area of 0.09 cm2. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the nanoporous framework. A linear dependence between the open-circuit potential (OCP) and the logarithm of concentration (e.g., Nernstian-like behavior) was obtained for all three redox molecules in 100 μL buffered solutions. As a first step towards understanding a real system, the response associated with changing the concentration of one redox species in the presence of the other two was examined. These results show that at NPG, the redox potential of a solution containing biologically relevant concentrations of ascorbic acid, uric acid, and cysteine is strongly influenced by ascorbic acid. Such information is important for the measurement of redox potentials in complex biological solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J. Freeman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA;
| | - Borkat Ullah
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA; (B.U.); (M.S.I.)
| | - Md. Shafiul Islam
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA; (B.U.); (M.S.I.)
| | - Maryanne M. Collinson
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA; (B.U.); (M.S.I.)
- Correspondence:
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16
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From Chip Size to Wafer-Scale Nanoporous Gold Reliable Fabrication Using Low Currents Electrochemical Etching. NANOMATERIALS 2020; 10:nano10112321. [PMID: 33238541 PMCID: PMC7700230 DOI: 10.3390/nano10112321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We report a simple, scalable route to wafer-size processing for fabrication of tunable nanoporous gold (NPG) by the anodization process at low constant current in a solution of hydrofluoric acid and dimethylformamide. Microstructural, optical, and electrochemical investigations were employed for a systematic analysis of the sample porosity evolution while increasing the anodization duration, namely the small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) technique and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Whereas the SAXS analysis practically completes the scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) investigations and provides data about the impact of the etching time on the nanoporous gold layers in terms of fractal dimension and average pore surface area, the EIS analysis was used to estimate the electroactive area, the associated roughness factor, as well as the heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant. The bridge between the analyses is made by the scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) survey, which practically correlates the surface morphology with the electrochemical activity. The results were correlated to endorse the control over the gold film nanostructuration process deposited directly on the substrate that can be further subjected to different technological processes, retaining its properties. The results show that the anodization duration influences the surface area, which subsequently modifies the properties of NPG, thus enabling tuning the samples for specific applications, either optical or chemical.
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17
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Abstract
In recent years, the field of nanoporous metals has undergone accelerated developments as these materials possess high specific surface areas, well-defined pore sizes, functional sites, and a wide range of functional properties. Nanoporous gold (NPG) is, surely, the most attractive system in the class of nanoporous metals: it combines several desired characteristics as occurrence of surface plasmon resonances, enormous surface area, electrochemical activity, biocompatibility, in addition to feasibility in preparation. All these properties concur in the exploitatiton of NPG as an efficient and versatile sensong platform. In this regard, NPG-based sensors have shown exceptional sensitivity and selectivity to a wide range of analytes ranging from molecules to biomolecules (and until the single molecule detection) and the enormous surface/volume ratio was shown to be crucial in determining these performances. Thanks to these characteristics, NPG-based sensors are finding applications in medical, biological, and safety fields so as in medical diagnostics and monitoring processes. So, a rapidly growing literature is currently investigating the properties of NPG systems toward the detection of a multitude of classes of analytes highlighting strengths and limits. Due to the extension, complexity, and importance of this research field, in the present review we attempt, starting from the discussion of specific cases, to focus our attention on the basic properties of NPG in connection to the main sensing applications, i.e., surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy-based and electrochemical-based sensing. Owing to the nano-sized pore channels and Au ligaments, which are much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (400–700 nm), surface plasmon resonances of NPG can be effectively excited by visible light and presents unique features compared with other nanostructured metals, such as nanoparticles, nanorods, and nanowires. This characteristics leads to optical sensors exploiting NPG through unique surface plasmon resonance properties that can be monitored by UV-Vis, Raman, or fluorescence spectroscopy. On the other hand, the catalytic properties of NPG are exploited electrochemical sensors are on the electrical signal produced by a specific analyte adsorbed of the NPG surface. In this regard, the enourmous NPG surface area is crucial in determining the sensitivity enhancement. Due to the extension, complexity, and importance of the NPG-based sensing field, in the present review we attempt, starting from the discussion of specific cases, to focus our attention on the basic properties of NPG in connection to the main sensing applications, i.e., surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy-based and electrochemical-based sensing. Starting from the discussion of the basic morphological/structural characteristics of NPG as obtained during the fabrication step and post-fabrication processes, the review aims to a comprehensive schematization of the main classes of sensing applications highlighting the basic involved physico-chemical properties and mechanisms. In each discussed specific example, the main involved parameters and processes governing the sensing mechanism are elucidated. In this way, the review aims at establishing a general framework connecting the processes parameters to the characteristics (pore size, etc.) of the NPG. Some examples are discussed concerning surface plasmon enhanced Uv-Vis, Raman, fluorescence spectroscopy in order to realize efficient NPG-based optical sesnors: in this regard, the underlaying connections between NPG structural/morphological properties and the optical response and, hence, the optical-based sensing performances are described and analyzed. Some other examples are discussed concerning the exploitation of the electrochemical characteristics of NPG for ultra-high sensitivity detection of analytes: in this regard, the key parameters determing the NPG activity and selectivity selectivity toward a variety of reactants are discussed, as high surface-to-volume ratio and the low coordination of surface atoms. In addition to the use of standard NPG films and leafs as sensing platforms, also the role of hybrid NPG-based nanocomposites and of nanoporous Au nanostructures is discussed due to the additional increase of the electrocatalytic acticvity and of exposed surface area resulting in the possible further sensitivity increase.
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18
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Khan RK, Yadavalli VK, Collinson MM. Flexible Nanoporous Gold Electrodes for Electroanalysis in Complex Matrices. ChemElectroChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201900894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rezaul K. Khan
- Department of Chemistry Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, VA 23284-2006
| | - Vamsi K. Yadavalli
- Department of Chemical and Life Science Engineering Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, VA 23284
| | - Maryanne M Collinson
- Department of Chemistry Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, VA 23284-2006
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19
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Najib ASBM, Peng X, Hashimoto A, Shoji S, Iida T, Bai Y, Abe H. Mesoporous Rh Emerging from Nanophase‐separated Rh‐Y Alloy. Chem Asian J 2019; 14:2802-2805. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201900542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Abdillah Sani Bin Mohd Najib
- National Institute for Materials Science Namiki 1-1 Tsukuba Ibaraki 305-0044 Japan
- Graduate School of Science and TechnologySaitama University Shimo-Okubo 255 Saitama 338-8570 Japan
| | - Xiaobo Peng
- National Institute for Materials Science Namiki 1-1 Tsukuba Ibaraki 305-0044 Japan
| | - Ayako Hashimoto
- National Institute for Materials Science Namiki 1-1 Tsukuba Ibaraki 305-0044 Japan
| | - Shusaku Shoji
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringSchool of Materials and Chemical TechnologyTokyo Institute of Technology Ookayama 2-12-1 Meguro-ku Tokyo 152–8552 Japan
| | - Takayuki Iida
- Department of Chemical System EngineeringThe University of Tokyo Hongo 7-3-1 Bunkyo-ku Tokyo 113-8656 Japan
| | - Yunxing Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Coal ConversionInstitute of Coal ChemistryChinese Academy of Sciences Taiyuan 030001 China
| | - Hideki Abe
- National Institute for Materials Science Namiki 1-1 Tsukuba Ibaraki 305-0044 Japan
- Graduate School of Science and TechnologySaitama University Shimo-Okubo 255 Saitama 338-8570 Japan
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20
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Butt M, Zhao Y, Feng X, Lu Y, Jin T, Yamamoto Y, Bao M. Unsupported Nanoporous Gold‐Catalyzed Chemoselective Reduction of Quinolines Using Formic Acid as a Hydrogen Source. ChemistrySelect 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201901309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Madiha Butt
- State Key Laboratory of Fine ChemicalsDalian University of Technology Dalian 116023 China
| | - Yuhui Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Fine ChemicalsDalian University of Technology Dalian 116023 China
| | - Xiujuan Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Fine ChemicalsDalian University of Technology Dalian 116023 China
| | - Ye Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine ChemicalsDalian University of Technology Dalian 116023 China
- Present Address: Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory of Carbon NanomaterialsNano Innovation Institute (NII) College of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringInner Mongolia University for Nationalities Tongliao 028000 China
| | - Tienan Jin
- Department of ChemistryGraduate School of ScienceTohoku University Sendai 980–8577 Japan
| | - Yoshinori Yamamoto
- State Key Laboratory of Fine ChemicalsDalian University of Technology Dalian 116023 China
- Department of ChemistryGraduate School of ScienceTohoku University Sendai 980–8577 Japan
| | - Ming Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Fine ChemicalsDalian University of Technology Dalian 116023 China
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21
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Vogiazi V, de la Cruz A, Mishra S, Shanov V, Heineman WR, Dionysiou DD. A Comprehensive Review: Development of Electrochemical Biosensors for Detection of Cyanotoxins in Freshwater. ACS Sens 2019; 4:1151-1173. [PMID: 31056912 PMCID: PMC6625642 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b00376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria harmful algal blooms are increasing in frequency and cyanotoxins have become an environmental and public concern in the U.S. and worldwide. In this Review, the majority of reported studies and developments of electrochemical affinity biosensors for cyanotoxins are critically reviewed and discussed. Essential background information about cyanobacterial toxins and electrochemical biosensors is combined with the rapidly moving development of electrochemical biosensors for these toxins. Current issues and future challenges for the development of useful electrochemical biosensors for cyanotoxin detection that meet the demands for applications in field freshwater samples are discussed. The major aspects of the entire review article in a prescribed sequence include (i) the state-of-the-art knowledge of the toxicity of cyanotoxins, (ii) important harmful algal bloom events, (iii) advisories, guidelines, and regulations, (iv) conventional analytical methods for determination of cyanotoxins, (v) electrochemical transduction, (vi) recognition receptors, (vii) reported electrochemical biosensors for cyanotoxins, (viii) summary of analytical performance, and (ix) recent advances and future trends. Discussion includes electrochemical techniques and devices, biomolecules with high affinity, numerous array designs, various detection approaches, and research strategies in tailoring the properties of the transducer-biomolecule interface. Scientific and engineering aspects are presented in depth. This review aims to serve as a valuable source to scientists and engineers entering the interdisciplinary field of electrochemical biosensors for detection of cyanotoxins in freshwaters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasileia Vogiazi
- Environmental Engineering and Science Program, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering (ChEE) , University of Cincinnati , Cincinnati , Ohio 45221 , United States
| | - Armah de la Cruz
- Office of Research and Development , US Environmental Protection Agency , Cincinnati , Ohio 45220 , United States
| | - Siddharth Mishra
- Mechanical and Materials Engineering , University of Cincinnati , Cincinnati 45221 , Ohio United States
| | - Vesselin Shanov
- Environmental Engineering and Science Program, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering (ChEE) , University of Cincinnati , Cincinnati , Ohio 45221 , United States
- Mechanical and Materials Engineering , University of Cincinnati , Cincinnati 45221 , Ohio United States
| | - William R Heineman
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cincinnati , Cincinnati , Ohio 45221 , United States
| | - Dionysios D Dionysiou
- Environmental Engineering and Science Program, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering (ChEE) , University of Cincinnati , Cincinnati , Ohio 45221 , United States
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22
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Suhito IR, Kang ES, Kim DS, Baek S, Park SJ, Moon SH, Luo Z, Lee D, Min J, Kim TH. High density gold nanostructure composites for precise electrochemical detection of human embryonic stem cells in cell mixture. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2019; 180:384-392. [PMID: 31082776 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.04.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Precise detection of undifferentiated human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) and their entire subsequent elimination are incredibly important in preventing teratoma formations after transplantation. Recently, electrochemical sensing platforms have demonstrated immense potential as a new tool to detect remaining hPSCs in label-free and non-destructive manner. Nevertheless, one of the critical huddles of this electrochemical sensing approach is its low sensitivity since even low concentrations of remaining hPSCs were reported to form teratoma once transplanted. To address this issue, in this study, we report an engineering-based approach to improve the sensitivity of electrochemical sensing platform for hPSC detection. By optimizing the density of gold nanostructure and the matrigel concentration to improve both electro-catalytic property and biocompatibility, the sensitivity of the developed platform toward hESCs detection could reach 12,500 cells/chip, which is close to the known critical concentration of hPSCs (˜10,000 cells) that induce teratoma formation in vivo. Remarkably, the electrochemical signals were not detectable from other types of stem cell-derived endothelial cells (CB-EPCs) even at high concentrations of CB-EPCs (40,000 cells/chip), proving the high selectivity of the developed platform toward hPSC detection. Hence, the developed platform could be highly useful to solve the safety issues that are related with clinical application of hPSC-derived cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Intan Rosalina Suhito
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Ee-Seul Kang
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Da-Seul Kim
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Seungho Baek
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Soon-Jung Park
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hwan Moon
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Zhengtang Luo
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong, China
| | - Donghyun Lee
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
| | - Junhong Min
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea.
| | - Tae-Hyung Kim
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea; Integrative Research Center for Two-Dimensional Functional Materials, Institute of Interdisciplinary Convergence Research, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea.
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23
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Wang C, Duan W, Xing L, Xiahou Y, Du W, Xia H. Fabrication of Au aerogels with {110}-rich facets by size-dependent surface reconstruction for enzyme-free glucose detection. J Mater Chem B 2019; 7:7588-7598. [DOI: 10.1039/c9tb01653h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Au6–50 aerogels with {110}-rich facets (35.5%) are fabricated for glucose detection by size-dependent surface reconstruction between two differently-sized gold nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crystal Materials
- Shandong University
- Jinan
- P. R. China
| | - Wenchao Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Crystal Materials
- Shandong University
- Jinan
- P. R. China
| | - Lixiang Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Crystal Materials
- Shandong University
- Jinan
- P. R. China
| | - Yujiao Xiahou
- State Key Laboratory of Crystal Materials
- Shandong University
- Jinan
- P. R. China
| | - Wei Du
- School of Environment and Material Engineering
- Yantai University
- Yantai 264005
- China
| | - Haibing Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Crystal Materials
- Shandong University
- Jinan
- P. R. China
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24
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Khan RK, Gadiraju SP, Kumar M, Hatmaker GA, Fisher BJ, Natarajan R, Reiner JE, Collinson MM. Redox Potential Measurements in Red Blood Cell Packets Using Nanoporous Gold Electrodes. ACS Sens 2018; 3:1601-1608. [PMID: 30080040 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.8b00498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The redox potential of packed red blood cells (RBCs) was measured over a 56-day storage period using a newly developed potentiometric methodology consisting of a nanoporous gold electrode and a silver chloride coated silver reference electrode. Both milliliter- and microliter-sized volumes were separately evaluated. The addition of Vitamin C (VitC) in differing doses to the packed RBCs was also assessed as a means to improve redox stability and prolong storage duration. For RBCs containing only saline, the open-circuit potential (OCP) was ∼ -80 mV vs Ag/AgCl and drifted slightly with time; greater differences were also noted between different electrodes. The addition of exogenous VitC to the RBC shifts the OCP to more negative values, stabilizes the redox potential, and improves reproducibly between different electrodes due to the poising of blood. Over the 56-day storage period, the redox potential of the RBCs increased slightly, which can be attributed to change in pH and/or increasing oxidative stress during storage. Cyclic voltammograms acquired after open-circuit potential measurements showed a characteristic peak attributed to the oxidation of VitC. This peak decreased during storage with a time constant of 20.8 days. Likewise, the intercellular concentration of VitC increased with a time constant of 20.2 days as measured using a fluorescence assay. Collectively, these results demonstrate the usefulness of electrochemical measurements in the study of stored blood products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rezaul Karim Khan
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Shanmuka P. Gadiraju
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Megh Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Grace A. Hatmaker
- Department of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Bernard J. Fisher
- Department of Internal Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Ramesh Natarajan
- Clinical Investigation Department and Department of Emergency Medicine, Combat Trauma Research Group, Naval Medical Center Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Virginia 23708-2197, United States
| | - Joseph E. Reiner
- Department of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Maryanne M. Collinson
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
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25
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Farghaly AA, Khan RK, Collinson MM. Biofouling-Resistant Platinum Bimetallic Alloys. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:21103-21112. [PMID: 29906086 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b02900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A new electrosynthetic approach for the fabrication of three-dimensional bicontinuous nanoporous platinum-based (3D-BC-NP-Pt(Au)) electrodes is described. Binary Pt-Ag alloys are first electrodeposited on gold substrates from appropriately formulated plating solutions. Following annealing and dealloying, a new family of nanoporous platinum-based electrodes emerges whose morphology, porosity, and chemical compositions depend on electrodeposition parameters and plating solution composition. Scanning electron microscopy images reveal an interesting and distinctive nanoporous gold-like microstructure with pores and ligaments in the 10-30 nm range arranged in a bicontinuous fashion throughout the thickness of the film. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirms that the as-formed electrodeposited films are silver-rich platinum binary alloys. Interestingly, XPS also reveals that after annealing and dealloying, the electrodes are actually ternary alloys containing platinum, gold, and a small amount of residual silver that remains after dealloying. Electrochemical measurements are consistent with this result and disclose a high surface area with roughness factors of 15-24. The ability to successfully conduct electrochemical measurements in biofouling solutions via a unique biosieving-like mechanism is demonstrated by exposure of the unique 3D bicontinuous nanoporous platinum-based electrode to fibrinogen in phosphate buffer and in a solution containing red blood cells. The work described herein has the potential to enrich the fields of electrochemical sensing and biosensing via the introduction of new 3D bicontinuous nanostructured porous platinum-based electrodes that can be easily and reliably fabricated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A Farghaly
- Advanced Photon Source , Argonne National Laboratory , Lemont , Illinois 60439-4854 , United States
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science , Assiut University , Assiut 71516 , Egypt
| | - Rezaul K Khan
- Department of Chemistry , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia 23284-2006 , United States
| | - Maryanne M Collinson
- Department of Chemistry , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia 23284-2006 , United States
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26
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Veselinovic J, Li Z, Daggumati P, Seker E. Electrically Guided DNA Immobilization and Multiplexed DNA Detection with Nanoporous Gold Electrodes. NANOMATERIALS 2018; 8:nano8050351. [PMID: 29883441 PMCID: PMC5977365 DOI: 10.3390/nano8050351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Molecular diagnostics have significantly advanced the early detection of diseases, where the electrochemical sensing of biomarkers (e.g., DNA, RNA, proteins) using multiple electrode arrays (MEAs) has shown considerable promise. Nanostructuring the electrode surface results in higher surface coverage of capture probes and more favorable orientation, as well as transport phenomena unique to nanoscale, ultimately leading to enhanced sensor performance. The central goal of this study is to investigate the influence of electrode nanostructure on electrically-guided immobilization of DNA probes for nucleic acid detection in a multiplexed format. To that end, we used nanoporous gold (np-Au) electrodes that reduced the limit of detection (LOD) for DNA targets by two orders of magnitude compared to their planar counterparts, where the LOD was further improved by an additional order of magnitude after reducing the electrode diameter. The reduced electrode diameter also made it possible to create a np-Au MEA encapsulated in a microfluidic channel. The electro-grafting reduced the necessary incubation time to immobilize DNA probes into the porous electrodes down to 10 min (25-fold reduction compared to passive immobilization) and allowed for grafting a different DNA probe sequence onto each electrode in the array. The resulting platform was successfully used for the multiplexed detection of three different biomarker genes relevant to breast cancer diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jovana Veselinovic
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Zidong Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Pallavi Daggumati
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Erkin Seker
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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27
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Lee E, Sung M, Wang Y, Kim J. Atomic Layer Electrodeposition of Pt on Nanoporous Au and its Application in pH Sensing. ELECTROANAL 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201800252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Euna Lee
- Department of Chemistry; Chungbuk National University; Chungbuk 28644 Korea
| | - Moonchang Sung
- Department of Chemistry; Chungbuk National University; Chungbuk 28644 Korea
| | - Yumi Wang
- Department of Chemistry; Chungbuk National University; Chungbuk 28644 Korea
| | - Jongwon Kim
- Department of Chemistry; Chungbuk National University; Chungbuk 28644 Korea
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28
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Preparation, Modification, Characterization, and Biosensing Application of Nanoporous Gold Using Electrochemical Techniques. NANOMATERIALS 2018; 8:nano8030171. [PMID: 29547580 PMCID: PMC5869662 DOI: 10.3390/nano8030171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Nanoporous gold (np-Au), because of its high surface area-to-volume ratio, excellent conductivity, chemical inertness, physical stability, biocompatibility, easily tunable pores, and plasmonic properties, has attracted much interested in the field of nanotechnology. It has promising applications in the fields of catalysis, bio/chemical sensing, drug delivery, biomolecules separation and purification, fuel cell development, surface-chemistry-driven actuation, and supercapacitor design. Many chemical and electrochemical procedures are known for the preparation of np-Au. Recently, researchers are focusing on easier and controlled ways to tune the pores and ligaments size of np-Au for its use in different applications. Electrochemical methods have good control over fine-tuning pore and ligament sizes. The np-Au electrodes that are prepared using electrochemical techniques are robust and are easier to handle for their use in electrochemical biosensing. Here, we review different electrochemical strategies for the preparation, post-modification, and characterization of np-Au along with the synergistic use of both electrochemistry and np-Au for applications in biosensing.
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29
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Podešva P, Gablech I, Neužil P. Nanostructured Gold Microelectrode Array for Ultrasensitive Detection of Heavy Metal Contamination. Anal Chem 2017; 90:1161-1167. [PMID: 29192490 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b03725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Podešva
- Northwestern Polytechnical University, School of Mechanical
Engineering, Department of Microsystem Engineering, 127 West Youyi Road, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710072, P. R. China
| | - Imrich Gablech
- Central
European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology (BUT), Purkyňova 656/123, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Neužil
- Northwestern Polytechnical University, School of Mechanical
Engineering, Department of Microsystem Engineering, 127 West Youyi Road, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710072, P. R. China
- Central
European Institute of Technology, Brno University of Technology (BUT), Purkyňova 656/123, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
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30
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Lim T, Sung M, Kim J. Oxygen Evolution Reaction at Microporous Pt Layers: Differentiated Electrochemical Activity between Acidic and Basic Media. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15382. [PMID: 29133870 PMCID: PMC5684209 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15688-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanoporous electrodes have received great attention because of their unique electrochemical properties. Here, the electrocatalytic oxygen evolution reaction (OER) activities at porous Pt layers with pore dimensions in the microporous range were examined. The OER activity of the porous Pt layers in acidic media increased as the porosity of the Pt layers increased, and the highest OER activity possessed an overpotential that was 270 mV lower than that of a bulk flat electrode. The porous Pt layers did not exhibit electrocatalytic enhancement for OER in basic media, wherein the surface area of the pores was not utilized for OER. The differentiated OER activity of the porous Pt layers demonstrated the different accessibility of reactants in OER: water and hydrated hydroxide ions. The roles of the pores in the Pt layers during OER were investigated using different Pt structures. The work will give insight into the electrochemistry of microporous electrode structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taejung Lim
- Department of Chemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, South Korea
| | - Moonchang Sung
- Department of Chemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, South Korea
| | - Jongwon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, South Korea.
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31
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Electrodeposited honeycomb-like dendritic porous gold surface: An efficient platform for enzyme-free hydrogen peroxide sensor at low overpotential. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2017.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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32
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van der Stam W, Gudjonsdottir S, Evers WH, Houtepen AJ. Switching between Plasmonic and Fluorescent Copper Sulfide Nanocrystals. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:13208-13217. [PMID: 28841295 PMCID: PMC5609121 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b07788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Control over the doping density in
copper sulfide nanocrystals
is of great importance and determines its use in optoelectronic applications
such as NIR optical switches and photovoltaic devices. Here, we demonstrate
that we can reversibly control the hole carrier density (varying from
>1022 cm–3 to intrinsic) in copper
sulfide
nanocrystals by electrochemical methods. We can control the type of
charge injection, i.e., capacitive charging or ion intercalation,
via the choice of the charge compensating cation (e.g., ammonium salts
vs Li+). Further, the type of intercalating ion determines
whether the charge injection is fully reversible (for Li+) or leads to permanent changes in doping density (for Cu+). Using fully reversible lithium intercalation allows us to switch
between thin films of covellite CuS NCs (Eg = 2.0 eV, hole density 1022 cm–3, strong
localized surface plasmon resonance) and low-chalcocite CuLiS NCs
(Eg = 1.2 eV, intrinsic, no localized
surface plasmon resonance), and back. Electrochemical Cu+ ion intercalation leads to a permanent phase transition to intrinsic
low-chalcocite Cu2S nanocrystals that display air stable
fluorescence, centered around 1050 nm (fwhm ∼145 meV, PLQY
ca. 1.8%), which is the first observation of narrow near-infrared
fluorescence for copper sulfide nanocrystals. The dynamic control
over the hole doping density and fluorescence of copper sulfide nanocrystals
presented in this work and the ability to switch between plasmonic
and fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystals might lead to their successful
implementation into photovoltaic devices, NIR optical switches and
smart windows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ward van der Stam
- Optoelectronic Materials Section, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology , van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Solrun Gudjonsdottir
- Optoelectronic Materials Section, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology , van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Wiel H Evers
- Optoelectronic Materials Section, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology , van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands.,Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology , van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Arjan J Houtepen
- Optoelectronic Materials Section, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Delft University of Technology , van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
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33
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Deng Z, Detsi E. Enhancing the free corrosion dealloying rate with a catalytically driven reaction. NANOSCALE 2017; 9:11858-11863. [PMID: 28799611 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr04611a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Despite its high popularity, chemical dealloying that is widely used for the fabrication of nanoporous metals is a relatively slow process: dealloying a few milligrams of bulk material may take from several hours up to a few days, depending on the material system. Raising the temperature of the corroding medium is a common approach to speed up the dealloying process. However, high temperatures cause undesired ligament growth in dealloyed materials. Here we report for the first time the use of a catalytically driven reaction to speed up the dealloying process at ambient temperature and pressure. To demonstrate the concept, we show that the free corrosion dealloying of a silver-aluminum alloy is significantly faster with the help of a platinum catalyst. More importantly, the corresponding characteristic nanostructured size is much smaller than that without a catalyst. Our finding is expected to play a central role in scaling up the dealloying process from the laboratory to the industrial scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziling Deng
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6272, USA.
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34
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Banan Sadeghian R, Han J, Ostrovidov S, Salehi S, Bahraminejad B, Ahadian S, Chen M, Khademhosseini A. Macroporous mesh of nanoporous gold in electrochemical monitoring of superoxide release from skeletal muscle cells. Biosens Bioelectron 2017; 88:41-47. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2016.06.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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35
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Sharma A, Bhattarai JK, Nigudkar SS, Pistorio SG, Demchenko AV, Stine KJ. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy study of carbohydrate-terminated alkanethiol monolayers on nanoporous gold: Implications for pore wetting. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2016; 782:174-181. [PMID: 28413373 PMCID: PMC5388453 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2016.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is used to compare the apparent electron transfer rate constant (kapp) for a series of alkanethiol and of carbohydrate-terminated alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on both flat gold and on nanoporous gold (np-Au). Using the surface area for np-Au determined by oxide stripping, the values of kapp for the alkanethiol modified np-Au are initially over two orders of magnitude smaller than the values found on flat Au. This result provides evidence that the diffusing redox probe Fe(CN)63-/4- only accesses a fraction of the np-Au surface after alkanethiol modification suggesting very limited wetting of the internal pores due to the hydrophobic nature of these surfaces. In contrast, for np-Au modified by carbohydrate-terminated (mannose or galactose) alkanethiols the values of kapp are about 10-40 fold smaller than on flat gold, suggesting more extensive access of the diffusing redox probe within the pores and better but still incomplete wetting, a result also found for modification of np-Au with mercaptododecanoic acid. A short chain PEG thiol derivative is found to result in a comparison of kapp values that suggests nearly complete wetting of the internal pores for this highly hydrophilic derivative. These results are of significance for the potential applications of SAM modified np-Au in electrochemical sensors, especially for those based on carbohydrate-protein recognition, or those of np-Au modified by SAMs with polar terminal groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abeera Sharma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri-Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Jay K Bhattarai
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri-Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Swati S Nigudkar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri-Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Salvatore G Pistorio
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri-Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Alexei V Demchenko
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri-Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Keith J Stine
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Missouri-Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63121
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36
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Thompson BL, Birch C, Nelson DA, Li J, DuVall JA, Le Roux D, Tsuei AC, Mills DL, Root BE, Landers JP. A centrifugal microfluidic device with integrated gold leaf electrodes for the electrophoretic separation of DNA. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:4569-4580. [PMID: 27766331 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc00953k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Current conventional methods utilized for forensic DNA analysis are time consuming and labor-intensive requiring large and expensive equipment and instrumentation. While more portable Rapid DNA systems have been developed, introducing them to a working laboratory still necessitates a high cost of initiation followed by the recurrent cost of the devices. This has highlighted the need for an inexpensive, rapid and portable DNA analysis tool for human identification in a forensic setting. In order for an integrated DNA analysis system such as this to be realized, device operations must always be concluded by a rapid separation of short-tandem repeat (STR) DNA fragments. Contributing to this, we report the development of a unique, multi-level, centrifugal microdevice that can perform both reagent loading and DNA separation. The fabrication protocol was inspired by the print, cut and laminate (PCL) technique described previously by our group, and in accordance, offers a rapid and inexpensive option compared with existing approaches. The device comprises multiple polyester-toner fluidic layers, a cyclic olefin copolymer separation domain and integrated gold leaf electrodes. All materials are commercially-available and complement the PCL process in a way that permits fabrication of increasingly sought after single-use devices. All reagents, including a viscous sieving matrix, are loaded centrifugally, eliminating external pneumatic pumping, and the sample is separated in <5 minutes using an effective separation length of only 4 cm (reagent loading to completed separation, is <37 minutes). The protocol for gold leaf electrode manufacture yielded up to 30 electrodes for less than $3 (cost of a 79 mm × 79 mm gold leaf sheet) and when using a device combining these electrodes and centrifugal reagent/polymer loading, the electrophoretic separation of STR fragments with two base resolution was demonstrated. This exemplary performance makes the device an ideal candidate for further integration and development of an inexpensive, portable and rapid forensic human identification system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon L Thompson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
| | - Christopher Birch
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
| | - Daniel A Nelson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
| | - Jingyi Li
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
| | - Jacquelyn A DuVall
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
| | - Delphine Le Roux
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
| | - An-Chi Tsuei
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
| | | | - Brian E Root
- Applied Research Institute, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - James P Landers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA. and Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA and Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
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37
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Siepenkoetter T, Salaj-Kosla U, Xiao X, Belochapkine S, Magner E. Nanoporous Gold Electrodes with Tuneable Pore Sizes for Bioelectrochemical Applications. ELECTROANAL 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201600249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Till Siepenkoetter
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Sciences, Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, Bernal Institute; University of Limerick; Ireland
| | - Urszula Salaj-Kosla
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Sciences, Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, Bernal Institute; University of Limerick; Ireland
| | - Xinxin Xiao
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Sciences, Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, Bernal Institute; University of Limerick; Ireland
| | - Serguei Belochapkine
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Sciences, Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, Bernal Institute; University of Limerick; Ireland
| | - Edmond Magner
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Sciences, Synthesis and Solid State Pharmaceutical Centre, Bernal Institute; University of Limerick; Ireland
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38
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Kurowska-Tabor E, Gawlak K, Hnida K, Jaskuła M, Sulka GD. Synthesis of porous thin silver films and their application for hydrogen peroxide sensing. Electrochim Acta 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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39
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Sadeghian RB, Ostrovidov S, Han J, Salehi S, Bahraminejad B, Bae H, Chen M, Khademhosseini A. Online Monitoring of Superoxide Anions Released from Skeletal Muscle Cells Using an Electrochemical Biosensor Based on Thick-Film Nanoporous Gold. ACS Sens 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.6b00325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ramin Banan Sadeghian
- WPI-Advanced
Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
- Biomaterials
Innovation Research Center, Division of Biomedical Engineering, Department
of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Serge Ostrovidov
- WPI-Advanced
Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Jiuhui Han
- WPI-Advanced
Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Sahar Salehi
- WPI-Advanced
Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Behzad Bahraminejad
- Department
of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Majlesi Branch, Islamic Azad University, Esfahan 86316-56451, Iran
- Biomaterials
Innovation Research Center, Division of Biomedical Engineering, Department
of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Hojae Bae
- College
of Animal Bioscience and Technology, Department of Bioindustrial Technologies, Konkuk University, Hwayang-dong,
Kwangjin-gu, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Mingwei Chen
- WPI-Advanced
Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Ali Khademhosseini
- WPI-Advanced
Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
- College
of Animal Bioscience and Technology, Department of Bioindustrial Technologies, Konkuk University, Hwayang-dong,
Kwangjin-gu, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea
- Biomaterials
Innovation Research Center, Division of Biomedical Engineering, Department
of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Harvard-Massachusetts
Institute of Technology Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Wyss
Institute
for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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40
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Giorgetti M, Aquilanti G, Ballarin B, Berrettoni M, Cassani MC, Fazzini S, Nanni D, Tonelli D. Speciation of Gold Nanoparticles by Ex Situ Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure and X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure. Anal Chem 2016; 88:6873-80. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b01524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Giorgetti
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Giuliana Aquilanti
- Elettra Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A., s.s. 14 km 163.5, 34149 Basovizza, Trieste, Italy
| | - Barbara Ballarin
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Mario Berrettoni
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Cassani
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Silvia Fazzini
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Daniele Nanni
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Domenica Tonelli
- Department
of Industrial Chemistry “Toso Montanari”, University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
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41
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Gentile A, Ruffino F, Grimaldi MG. Complex-Morphology Metal-Based Nanostructures: Fabrication, Characterization, and Applications. NANOMATERIALS 2016; 6:nano6060110. [PMID: 28335236 PMCID: PMC5302633 DOI: 10.3390/nano6060110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 05/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Due to their peculiar qualities, metal-based nanostructures have been extensively used in applications such as catalysis, electronics, photography, and information storage, among others. New applications for metals in areas such as photonics, sensing, imaging, and medicine are also being developed. Significantly, most of these applications require the use of metals in the form of nanostructures with specific controlled properties. The properties of nanoscale metals are determined by a set of physical parameters that include size, shape, composition, and structure. In recent years, many research fields have focused on the synthesis of nanoscale-sized metallic materials with complex shape and composition in order to optimize the optical and electrical response of devices containing metallic nanostructures. The present paper aims to overview the most recent results—in terms of fabrication methodologies, characterization of the physico-chemical properties and applications—of complex-morphology metal-based nanostructures. The paper strongly focuses on the correlation between the complex morphology and the structures’ properties, showing how the morphological complexity (and its nanoscale control) can often give access to a wide range of innovative properties exploitable for innovative functional device production. We begin with an overview of the basic concepts on the correlation between structural and optical parameters of nanoscale metallic materials with complex shape and composition, and the possible solutions offered by nanotechnology in a large range of applications (catalysis, electronics, photonics, sensing). The aim is to assess the state of the art, and then show the innovative contributions that can be proposed in this research field. We subsequently report on innovative, versatile and low-cost synthesis techniques, suitable for providing a good control on the size, surface density, composition and geometry of the metallic nanostructures. The main purpose of this study is the fabrication of functional nanoscale-sized materials, whose properties can be tailored (in a wide range) simply by controlling the structural characteristics. The modulation of the structural parameters is required to tune the plasmonic properties of the nanostructures for applications such as biosensors, opto-electronic or photovoltaic devices and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) substrates. The structural characterization of the obtained nanoscale materials is employed in order to define how the synthesis parameters affect the structural characteristics of the resulting metallic nanostructures. Then, macroscopic measurements are used to probe their electrical and optical properties. Phenomenological growth models are drafted to explain the processes involved in the growth and evolution of such composite systems. After the synthesis and characterization of the metallic nanostructures, we study the effects of the incorporation of the complex morphologies on the optical and electrical responses of each specific device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Gentile
- Department of Physics and Astronomy-University of Catania, via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy.
- MATIS IMM-CNR, via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Francesco Ruffino
- Department of Physics and Astronomy-University of Catania, via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy.
- MATIS IMM-CNR, via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Maria Grazia Grimaldi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy-University of Catania, via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy.
- MATIS IMM-CNR, via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy.
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42
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An overview of dealloyed nanoporous gold in bioelectrochemistry. Bioelectrochemistry 2016; 109:117-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2015.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Revised: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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43
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Freeman CJ, Farghaly AA, Choudhary H, Chavis AE, Brady KT, Reiner JE, Collinson MM. Microdroplet-Based Potentiometric Redox Measurements on Gold Nanoporous Electrodes. Anal Chem 2016; 88:3768-74. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J. Freeman
- Department
of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Ahmed A. Farghaly
- Department
of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Hajira Choudhary
- Department
of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Amy E. Chavis
- Department
of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Kyle T. Brady
- Department
of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Joseph E. Reiner
- Department
of Physics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284, United States
| | - Maryanne M. Collinson
- Department
of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
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44
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Renner FU, Ankah GN, Bashir A, Ma D, Biedermann PU, Shrestha BR, Nellessen M, Khorashadizadeh A, Losada-Pérez P, Duarte MJ, Raabe D, Valtiner M. Star-Shaped Crystallographic Cracking of Localized Nanoporous Defects. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2015; 27:4877-4882. [PMID: 26192203 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201405565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
On self-assembled monolayer-covered Cu-Au substrates, localized volume shrinkage at initial dealloying sites leads to cracks within the attacked regions. It is started from well-controlled surface structures to gain fundamental insights in the driving mechanisms of localized corrosion and crack formation. Both the crack density and the crack morphology are critically dependent on surface orientation, crystallography, and inhibitor molecule species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Uwe Renner
- Institute for Materials Research (IMO), Hasselt University and Associated Lab IMEC Division IMOMEC, Wetenschapspark 1, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Genesis Ngwa Ankah
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Asif Bashir
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Duancheng Ma
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - P Ulrich Biedermann
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Buddha Ratna Shrestha
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Monika Nellessen
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Anahita Khorashadizadeh
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Patricia Losada-Pérez
- Institute for Materials Research (IMO), Hasselt University and Associated Lab IMEC Division IMOMEC, Wetenschapspark 1, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Maria Jazmin Duarte
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Dierk Raabe
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Markus Valtiner
- Max-Planck-Institut für Eisenforschung GmbH, Max-Planck-Straße 1, D-40237, Düsseldorf, Germany
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45
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Gul T, Bischoff R, Permentier HP. Electrosynthesis methods and approaches for the preparative production of metabolites from parent drugs. Trends Analyt Chem 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2015.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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46
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Enhanced Adhesion of Continuous Nanoporous Au Layers by Thermochemical Oxidation of Glassy Carbon. COATINGS 2014. [DOI: 10.3390/coatings4030416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Zhang R, Olin H. Porous Gold Films-A Short Review on Recent Progress. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2014; 7:3834-3854. [PMID: 28788652 PMCID: PMC5453235 DOI: 10.3390/ma7053834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Porous gold films have attracted increasing interest over the last ten years due to the unique properties of high specific surface area and electrical conductivity combined with chemical stability and ability to alter the surface chemistry. Several methods have been developed to synthesize porous gold films such as de-alloying, templating, electrochemical, and self-assembling. These porous gold films are used in diverse fields, for example, as electrochemical and Raman sensors or for chemical catalysis. Here, we provide a short review on the progress of porous gold films over the past ten years, including the synthesis and applications of such films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renyun Zhang
- Department of Natural Sciences, Mid Sweden University, SE-85170 Sundsvall, Sweden.
| | - Håkan Olin
- Department of Natural Sciences, Mid Sweden University, SE-85170 Sundsvall, Sweden.
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Farghaly AA, Collinson MM. Electroassisted codeposition of sol-gel derived silica nanocomposite directs the fabrication of coral-like nanostructured porous gold. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:5276-5286. [PMID: 24766096 DOI: 10.1021/la500614g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we report on a one-step coelectrodeposition method to form gold-silica nanocomposite materials from which high surface area nanostructured gold electrodes can be produced. The as-prepared Au-SiO2 films possess an interconnected three-dimensional porous framework with different silica-gold ratios depending on the deposition solutions and parameters. Chemical etching of the nanocomposite films using hydrofluoric acid resulted in the formation of nanostructured porous gold films with coral-like structures and pores in the nanometer range. The cross-linkage of the gold coral branches resulted in the generation of a porous framework. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy confirms the complete removal of silica. Well-controlled surface area enhancement, film thickness, and morphology were achieved by manipulating the deposition parameters, such as potential, time, and gold ion and sol-gel monomer concentrations in the deposition solution. An enhancement in the surface area of the electrode up to 57 times relative to the geometric area has been achieved. The thickness of the as-prepared Au-SiO2 nanocomposite films is relatively high and varied from 8 to 15 μm by varying the applied deposition potential while the thickness of the coral-like nanostructured porous gold films ranged from 0.22 to 2.25 μm. A critical sol-gel monomer concentration (CSGC) was determined at which the deposited silica around the gold coral was able to stabilize the coral-like gold nanostructures, while below the CSGC, the coral-like gold nanostructures were unstable and the surface area of the nanostructured porous gold electrodes decreased.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A Farghaly
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
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Pandey B, Bhattarai JK, Pornsuriyasak P, Fujikawa K, Catania R, Demchenko AV, Stine KJ. Square-wave voltammetry assays for glycoproteins on nanoporous gold. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2014; 717-718:47-60. [PMID: 24611035 PMCID: PMC3941082 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2014.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical enzyme-linked lectinsorbent assays (ELLA) were developed using nanoporous gold (NPG) as a solid support for protein immobilization and as an electrode for the electrochemical determination of the product of the reaction between alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and p-aminophenyl phosphate (p-APP), which is p-aminophenol (p-AP). Glycoproteins or concanavalin A (Con A) and ALP conjugates were covalently immobilized onto lipoic acid self-assembled monolayers on NPG. The binding of Con A - ALP (or soybean agglutinin - ALP) conjugate to glycoproteins covalently immobilized on NPG and subsequent incubation with p-APP substrate was found to result in square-wave voltammograms whose peak difference current varied with the identity of the glycoprotein. NPG presenting covalently bound glycoproteins was used as the basis for a competitive electrochemical assay for glycoproteins in solution (transferrin and IgG). A kinetic ELLA based on steric hindrance of the enzyme-substrate reaction and hence reduced enzymatic reaction rate after glycoprotein binding is demonstrated using immobilized Con A-ALP conjugates. Using the immobilized Con A-ALP conjugate, the binding affinity of immunoglobulin G (IgG) was found to be 105 nM, and that for transferrin was found to be 650 nM. Minimal interference was observed in the presence of 5 mg mL-1 BSA as a model serum protein in both the kinetic and competitive ELLA. Inhibition studies were performed with methyl D-mannoside for the binding of TSF and IgG to Con A-ALP; IC50 values were found to be 90 μM and 286 μM, respectively. Surface coverages of proteins were estimated using solution depletion and the BCA protein concentration assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binod Pandey
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
- Center for Nanoscience University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Jay K. Bhattarai
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
- Center for Nanoscience University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Papapida Pornsuriyasak
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Kohki Fujikawa
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Rosa Catania
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Alexei V. Demchenko
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
| | - Keith J. Stine
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
- Center for Nanoscience University of Missouri-St. Louis One University Boulevard Saint Louis, MO 63121
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Patel J, Radhakrishnan L, Zhao B, Uppalapati B, Daniels RC, Ward KR, Collinson MM. Electrochemical Properties of Nanostructured Porous Gold Electrodes in Biofouling Solutions. Anal Chem 2013; 85:11610-8. [PMID: 24245771 DOI: 10.1021/ac403013r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jay Patel
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Logudurai Radhakrishnan
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Bo Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Badharinadh Uppalapati
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Rodney C. Daniels
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Kevin R. Ward
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
| | - Maryanne M. Collinson
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1001 West Main Street, Richmond, Virginia 23284-2006, United States
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