The evidence for nerve repair in obstetric brachial plexus palsy revisited

Demographics and deprivation in obstetric brachial plexus palsy: a retrospective cohort study

The present study analyses the relationships between deprivation and obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP). A retrospective observational study was conducted of infants with OBPP seen between 2008 and 2020 (n = 321). The index of multiple deprivation (IMD) was used to assign an IMD rank to patients based on birth postcode and the relationship with OBPP was analysed, including deprivation, gestational diabetes, age at referral and at first assessment. Quintile-based analysis demonstrated over-representation of patients from more deprived neighbourhoods (n = 109, 39%) living in the top 20% most deprived neighbourhoods. A total of 48 (15%) mothers had diabetes and 98 (31%) infants underwent surgical brachial plexus exploration (a marker of disease severity). Neither diabetes, age at referral nor age at first assessment were associated with IMD score. This suggests that neighbourhood deprivation is associated with OBPP, though the mechanisms are unclear. Further studies in this area may enable targeted health intervention for more deprived maternal and infant groups.Level of evidence: III.

Single Blind Randomized Controlled Trial of Modified Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy in Infants With the Sequelas of Unilateral Brachial Plexus Injury

Objective

To explore the effect of modified constraint-induced movement therapy (mCIMT) on upper limbs residual dysfunction for infancy with the sequelas of unilateral brachial plexus injury (uBPI).

Methods

Single blind randomized controlled trial of mCIMT vs. standard care. An enrolling 31 infants with a uBPI exhibiting residual dysfunction of the affected upper limb for over 6 months was conducted. And functional outcomes pertaining to the affected upper limb were assessed via AMS, GRES, RHS, and MSS at 0, 3, and 6 months after treatment.

Results

No differences were found in baseline (acquisition phase) AMS, MSS, GRES, or RHS between the control and mCIMT groups [F(1, 14) = 0.062, P = 0.086; F(1, 14) = 0.483, P = 0.499; F(1, 14) = 0.272, P = 0.610; Z = −0.336, P = 7.373]. At the 3- and 6-month follow-up time points, AMS, MSS, and GRES scores were significantly improved over baseline in both groups [mCIMT: F(2, 30) = 183.750, 128.614, 110.085, P < 0.05; Control: F(2, 28) = 204.007, 75.246, 51.070, P < 0.05]. No significant differences were found between two treatment groups at the 3-month follow-up time point [F(1, 14) = 0.565, P = 0.465; F(1, 14) = 0.228, P = 0.641; F(1, 14) = 0.713, P = 0.413; Z = −0.666, P = 0.505]. However, at the 6-month follow-up time point, AMS and MSS scores were significantly improved in the mCIMT group relative to the control group [F(1, 14) = 8.077, P = 0.013; F(1, 14) = 18.692, P = 0.001].

Conclusion

mCIMT may benefit the rehabilitation of residual upper limb dysfunction associated with a uBPI in infants.

Clinical Trial Registration

[www.chictr.org.cn], identifier [ChiCTR1900022119].

Brachial Plexus Birth Injuries

Brachial plexus birth injuries (BPBIs) are typically traction type injuries to the newborn that occur during the delivery process. Although the incidence of these injuries has overall decreased from 1.5 to around 0.9 per 1000 live births in the United States over the past 2 decades, these injuries remain common, with incidence holding fairly steady from 2008 to 2014. Shoulder dystocia is the strongest identified risk factor, imparting a 100-fold greater risk. The newborn's shoulder is caught behind the mother's pubic bone, and traction performed on the child during delivery results in injury to the brachial plexus. Other risk factors associated with BPBI include macrosomia (birthweight > 4.5 kg), heavy for gestational age infants, birth hypoxia, gestational diabetes, and forceps or vacuum-assisted delivery. Breech presentation has also been described as a risk factor in the past, but there have been more recent data that challenge this association.

Surgical timing in neonatal brachial plexus palsy: A PRISMA-IPD systematic review

Background

Neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) is a serious complication of high‐risk deliveries with controversy surrounding timing of corrective nerve surgery. This review systematically examines the existing literature and investigates correlations between age at time of upper trunk brachial plexus microsurgery and surgical outcomes.

Methods

A systematic screening of PubMed, Cochrane, Web of Science, and CINAHL databases using PRISMA‐IPD guidelines was conducted in January 2020 to include full‐text English papers with microsurgery in upper trunk palsy, pediatric patients. Spearman rank correlation analysis and two‐tailed t‐tests were performed using individual patient data to determine the relationship between mean age at time of surgery and outcome as determined by the Mallet, Medical Research Council (MRC), or Active Movement Scale (AMS) subscores.

Results

Two thousand nine hundred thirty six papers were screened to finalize 25 papers containing individual patient data (n = 256) with low to moderate risk of bias, as assessed by the ROBINS‐I assessment tool. Mallet subscore for hand‐to‐mouth and shoulder abduction, AMS subscore for elbow flexion and external rotation, and MRC subscore for elbow flexion were analyzed alongside the respective age of patients at surgery. Spearman rank correlation analysis revealed a significant negative correlation (ρ = −0.30, p < .01, n = 89) between increasing age (5.50 ± 2.09 months) and Mallet subscore for hand‐to‐mouth (3.43 ± 0.83). T‐tests revealed a significant decrease in Mallet hand‐to‐mouth subscores after 6 months (p < .05) and 9 months (p < .05) of age. No significant effects were observed for Mallet shoulder abduction, MRC elbow flexion, or AMS elbow flexion and external rotation.

Conclusion

The cumulative evidence suggests a significant negative correlation between age at microsurgery and Mallet subscores for hand‐to‐mouth. However, a similar correlation with age at surgery was not observed for Mallet shoulder abduction, MRC elbow flexion, AMS external rotation, and AMS elbow flexion subscores.

Avaliação dos resultados a longo prazo da cirurgia de Oberlin na paralisia braquial obstétrica

Objetivo Avaliar a flexão do cotovelo em crianças portadoras de paralisia obstétrica do plexo braquial submetidas à transferência de Oberlin.

Métodos Estudo retrospectivo com 11 pacientes acometidos por paralisia decorrente do trabalho de parto e que não apresentaram recuperação espontânea da flexão do cotovelo até os 12 meses de vida, operados entre 2010 e 2018.

Resultados As crianças foram operadas entre os 5 e 12 meses de vida, com média de 7,9 meses e o tempo médio de seguimento foi de 133,2 meses, variando de 37 a 238 meses. Seis pacientes (54,5%) apresentaram grau de força muscular ≥ 3, medido pela escala de força do Medical Research Council (MRC), e, pela escala de movimentação ativa (Active Momement Scale [AMS]), 5 pacientes obtiveram pontuação ≥ 5. Foi identificada correlação negativa entre a AMS e a classificação de Narakas (r = -0,509), bem como entre a MRC e a classificação de Narakas (r = -0,495). Já entre a AMS e a MRC, foi observada forte correlação positiva (r = 0,935), demonstrando que quanto maior a pontuação na escala de movimento, maior será a pontuação na escala de força muscular.

Conclusão A cirurgia de Oberlin apresenta-se como uma opção possível para a recuperação da flexão do cotovelo em crianças com plexopatia neonatal; no entanto, demonstra resultados bastante heterogêneos, mesmo no seguimento a longo prazo.

Evidence that nerve surgery improves functional outcome for obstetric brachial plexus injury

The majority of children with obstetric brachial plexus injury show some degree of spontaneous recovery. This review explores the available evidence for the use surgical brachial plexus repair to improve outcome. So far, no randomized trial has been performed to evaluate the usefulness of nerve repair. The evidence level of studies comparing surgical treatment with non-surgical treatment is Level IV at best. The studies on natural history that are used for comparison with surgical series are also, unfortunately, of too low quality. Among experts, however, the general agreement is that nerve reconstruction is indicated when spontaneous recovery is absent or severely delayed at specific time points. A major obstacle in comparing or pooling obstetric brachial plexus injury patient series, either surgical or non-surgical, is the use of many different outcome measures. A requirement for multicentre studies is consensus on how to assess and report outcome, both concerning motor performance and functional evaluation.

Efeito do treino de alcance combinado com estimulação elétrica em lactentes com paralisia braquial perinatal: estudo experimental de caso único

RESUMO O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito do treino de alcance combinado à estimulação elétrica funcional (FES) na movimentação ativa do membro superior de lactentes com paralisia braquial perinatal (PBP). Trata-se de estudo experimental de caso único do tipo A-B com follow-up. Foram documentados semanalmente dados relativos à função do membro superior (Escala de Movimento Ativo) de dois lactentes, uma menina e um menino de 7 e 10 meses de idade, respectivamente. Após seis avaliações, três vezes por semana, durante duas semanas, na linha de base (A), a intervenção consistiu em aplicar FES Neurodyn® no músculo deltoide em combinação com treino de alcance de objetos, incentivando abdução e flexão anterior de ombro acima de 90°, durante seis semanas, totalizando 15 atendimentos (B). Os lactentes foram reavaliados duas vezes após um período de 15 e 30 dias sem intervenção (follow-up). A pontuação total obtida em cada dia de avaliação foi representada graficamente. Houve boa aceitação da eletroestimulação, sem nenhum efeito colateral. Ambos os lactentes apresentaram melhora da movimentação ativa do membro superior afetado após a intervenção e os ganhos foram mantidos no follow-up, com aumento de 9 e 7 pontos para os lactentes 1 e 2, respectivamente. Seis semanas de intervenção resultaram em mudanças individuais na função do membro superior dos lactentes, principalmente no aumento da amplitude de movimento ativo em flexão e abdução de ombro e flexão de cotovelo. Os resultados deste estudo sugerem o uso de estimulação elétrica como coadjuvante do treino do uso do membro superior afetado de lactentes com PBP.

Management of Birth Brachial Plexus Injury Including Use of Distal Nerve Transfers

Birth Brachial plexus injury continues to remain a problem despite significant care from obstetricians to prevent it. Many children show spontaneous recovery but a significant proportion do not have adequate recovery. This review article discusses, etiology, assessment, investigations and overall strategy to treat the condition. Surgical strategy consists of primary intraplexal repair as the standard of care but of late the distal nerve transfers used in adult plexus injuries are increasingly being used in infants too. We discuss the history, current usage and pros and cons of distal nerve transfers, the usage of Botulinum Toxin and finally given an overall algorithm for the management.

Health-care use and information needs of children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy: A cross-sectional survey among 465 Dutch patients

To investigate health-care use (HCU) and information needs of children aged 0-18 years with neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP), a cross-sectional study was performed. Patients and/or parents seen in our NBPP clinic were invited to complete a survey comprising questions on HCU due to NBPP and current information needs. Outcomes were described for three age-groups (0-1/2-9/10-18 years), based on follow-up status (early/late/no-discharge). Four hundred sixty-five parents/patients participated (59 in the 0-1, 226 in the 2-9, and 180 in the 10-18-year group). Two hundred ninety-three patients had C5-C6 lesions, 193 were discharged from follow-up, 83 of whom categorized as 'early discharged' (<1 year of age). Over the past year, 198 patients had contact with the expert team (49 in the 0-1, 81 in the 2-9, and 68 in the 10-18-year group) and 288 with at least one other health-care professional (53 in the 0-1, 133 in the 2-9, and 102 in the 10-18-year group). Of the 83 patients discharged early, 34 reported health-care use. Two hundred twenty-eight participants reported current information needs of whom 23 were discharged early. HCU and information needs of Dutch children with NBPP remains considerable even in children who were discharged. Stricter follow-up and information provision for these patients is needed.

Rehabilitation of Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy: Integrative Literature Review

This integrative literature review has been carried out with the aim of analyzing the scientific literature aimed at identifying and describing existing rehabilitation treatments/therapies for neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP). NBPP is a frequent consequence of difficult birthing, and it impairs the function of the brachial plexus in newborns. This is why knowledge on rehabilitation strategies deserves special attention. The data collection was carried out in January 2019, in the EBSCOhost and BVS (Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde) platforms, in the CINAHL Complete, MEDLINE Complete, LILACS and PubMed databases. Thirteen articles were included in this integrative literature review, based on a literature search spanning title, abstract and full text, and considering the inclusion criteria. Two main treatments/therapies for NBPP rehabilitation were identified: conservative treatment and surgical treatment. Conservative treatment includes teamwork done by physiatrists, physiotherapists and occupational therapists. These professionals use rehabilitation techniques and resources in a complementary way, such as electrostimulation, botulinum toxin injection, immobilizing splints, and constraint induced movement therapy of the non-injured limb. Professionals and family members work jointly. Surgical treatment includes primary surgeries, indicated for children who do not present any type of spontaneous rehabilitation in the first three months of life; and secondary surgeries, recommended in children who after primary surgery have some limitation of injured limb function, or in children who have had some spontaneous recovery, yet still have significant functional deficits. Treatment options for NBPP are defined by clinical evaluation/type of injury, but regardless of the type of injury, it is unanimous that conservative treatment is always started as early as possible. It should be noted that there was no evidence in the literature of other types of rehabilitation and techniques used in clinical practice, such as preventive positioning of contractures and deformities, hydrotherapy/aquatic therapy, among others, so we consider there is a need for further studies at this level in this area.

Outcome assessment for Brachial Plexus birth injury. Results from the iPluto world-wide consensus survey

There is no consensus regarding strategies to optimally treat children with a brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI). Comparison of outcome data presented by different centers is impossible due to the use of (1) many different outcome measures to evaluate results; (2) different follow-up periods after interventions; and (3) different patient ages at the time of assessment. The goal of iPluto (international PLexus oUtcome sTudy grOup) was to define a standardized dataset which should be minimally collected to evaluate upper limb function in children with BPBI. This dataset must enable comparison of the treatment results of different centers if prospectively used. Three rounds of internet surveys were used to reach consensus on the dataset. A Delphi-derived technique was applied using a nine point Likert scale. Consensus was defined as having attained a rating of 7/8/9 by > = 75% of the participants. A total of 59 participants from five continents participated in the Second and Third Rounds of the survey. Consensus was reached regarding four elements: (1) evaluation should take place at the age of 1/3/5/7 years; range of motion in degrees should be measured for (2) passive joint movement; (3) active range of motion; and (4) the Mallet score should be determined. Consensus on how to asses and report outcome for BPBI was only reached on motor items from the "Body Function and Structure" domain. Consensus regarding additional ICF domains to obtain a more elaborate set of outcome items, should be addressed in future research. © 2018 The Authors. Journal of Orthopaedic Research® Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of the Orthopaedic Research Society. J Orthop Res 36:2533-2541, 2018.

Characteristics and outcomes of obstetric brachial plexus palsy in a single Saudi center: an experience of ten years

BACKGROUND

Obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) is considered a rare, unpredictable, and unavoidable injury of the upper limb. In this study, we presented a retrospective cohort study over a period of ten years in King Faisal Specialists Hospital and Research Centre (KFSH&RC), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, to assess the characteristics and functional outcomes of OBPP.

METHODS

Between January 2005 and December 2015, we carried out 125 repairs of OBPP in KFSH&RC. Out of 71 girls and 54 boys, two babies died of unrelated causes, so they were excluded from the review. All medical records of the patients who attended OBPP clinic at KFSH&RC were reviewed, and relative data were extracted. Descriptive measures for categorical variables and categorical variables were presented. Student's t test and Pearson's χ² test were used. The level of statistical significance was set at P ≤ 0.05.

RESULTS

A total of 123 patients were included in the study with a mean follow-up of 6.1 ± 2.4 years. Of those, 71 (57.7%) were females. Mean age at presentation was 4.2 ± 2.7 months with a birth weight of 3965.9 ± 629.6 g. More than half of the patients (56.1%) sustained the injury in the right side, and 62 patients (50.4%) were classified as Narakas I. Most of the surgeries (96.7%) were nerve grafting. Only 32 (26.0%) patients needed one or more secondary interventions. In the last visit, the mean total score of Mallet was 16.6 ± 2.8. Also, passive external rotation in adduction improved to 38.3 ± 14.5. Last Raimondi hand function grade was 2 ± 1.

DISCUSSION

Our experience demonstrated the value of primary and secondary surgeries in patients with OBPP. Also, we presented the patterns of injury in Saudi patients presented to KFSH&RC.

Participation restrictions among adolescents and adults with neonatal brachial plexus palsy: the patient perspective

PURPOSE

To examine the impact of neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) on societal participation of adolescents and adults.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted among patients with NBPP, aged ≥16 years, who had visited our NBPP clinic. Patients completed questions on the influence of NBPP on their choices regarding education/work and their work-performance, the Impact on Participation/Autonomy questionnaire and the Utrecht Scale for Evaluation of Rehabilitation-Participation (USER-P). In addition, health-related quality of life (HRQoL) was assessed.

RESULTS

Seventy-five patients participated (median age 20, inter quartile range 17-27). Twenty were full-time students, 28 students with a job, 21 employed, two unemployed, and four work-disabled. Sixty-six patients had had a job at some stage. Patients' overall HRQoL was comparable to the general population. 27/75 patients reported that NBPP had affected their choices regarding education and 26/75 those regarding work. 33/66 reported impact on their work performance. On the Impact on Participation/Autonomy questionnaire, 80% (49/61) reported restrictions in the work-and-education domain, 74% in social-relations and 67% in autonomy-outdoors. 37/61 reported participation restrictions on the USER-P.

CONCLUSIONS

Although their overall HRQoL was not impaired, a substantial proportion of adolescent/adult patients reported that NBPP had an impact on choices regarding education and profession, as well as on work-performance. Restrictions in participation, especially in work and education were also reported. Guiding patients in making choices on education and work at an early stage and providing tailored physical as well as psychosocial care may prevent or address restrictions, which may improve participation. Implications for Rehabilitation Adolescent and adult patients with neonatal brachial plexus palsy perceive restrictions in societal participation, especially regarding the work-and-education domain. All patients with neonatal brachial plexus palsy may perceive restrictions in societal participation regardless of lesion severity, treatment history and side of the lesion. Adolescents and adults with neonatal brachial plexus palsy report that their choices regarding education and work, as well as their work-performance are influenced by their neonatal brachial plexus palsy. Patients with neonatal brachial plexus palsy should be followed throughout their life in order to provide them with appropriate information and treatment when health- or participation-related issues arise. Rehabilitation treatment is the best option to address all of the aforementioned issues, as surgical options in adolescents and adults are limited.

Caring for a Child With an Obstetric Brachial Plexus Injury: A Metaphor Analysis

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the metaphors used by mothers to describe their experiences caring for their children with obstetric brachial plexus injuries.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A secondary qualitative data analysis was conducted from the primary data set of a phenomenological study of mothers' experiences caring for their children with obstetric brachial plexus injuries. The type of secondary qualitative data analysis approach used was analytic expansion. Metaphor Identification Procedure was used to analyze the corpus of 132 pages of typed transcription.

RESULTS

This metaphorical analysis yielded seven metaphors mothers used to describe their experiences caring for their children with obstetric brachial plexus injuries. These metaphors portrayed mothers' lives as involving a heavy weight, a maze, a juggling act, a simmering pot, a dagger to the heart, a rollercoaster, and a constant battle.

CONCLUSION

The seven metaphors helped women express what they could not completely capture using only medical jargon and provide valuable insight for clinicians. Using secondary qualitative data analysis to mine for any metaphors in a primary data set gives researchers another valuable and creative opportunity to discover new knowledge from the data they had previously collected.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Specific interventions can be developed to target each of these seven metaphors to help mothers in their daily care for their children with obstetric brachial plexus injuries.

Distal nerve transfer versus supraclavicular nerve grafting: comparison of elbow flexion outcome in neonatal brachial plexus palsy with C5-C7 involvement

PURPOSE

Ulnar and median nerve transfers to arm muscles have been used to recover elbow flexion in infants with neonatal brachial plexus palsy, but there is no direct outcome comparison with the classical supraclavicular nerve grafting approach.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed patients with C5-C7 neonatal brachial plexus palsy submitted to nerve surgery and recorded elbow flexion recovery using the active movement scale (0-7) at 12 and 24 months after surgery. We compared 13 patients submitted to supraclavicular nerve grafting with 21 patients submitted to distal ulnar or median nerve transfer to biceps motor branch. We considered elbow flexion scores of 6 or 7 as good results.

RESULTS

The mean elbow flexion score and the proportion of good results were better using distal nerve transfers than supraclavicular grafting at 12 months (p < 0.01), but not at 24 months. Two patients with failed supraclavicular nerve grafting at 12 months showed good elbow flexion recovery after ulnar nerve transfers.

CONCLUSION

Distal nerve transfers provided faster elbow flexion recovery than supraclavicular nerve grafting, but there was no significant difference in the outcome after 24 months of surgery. Patients with failed supraclavicular grafting operated early can still benefit from late distal nerve transfers. Supraclavicular nerve grafting should remain as the first line surgical treatment for children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy.

Obstetric brachial plexus injury. Knowledge among health care providers in Saudi Arabia

Objectives:

To assess the basic knowledge on obstetric brachial plexus injury among obstetricians, pediatricians, and physio-/occupational therapists in major hospitals in Riyadh. We aimed to identify if inadequate knowledge is the reason behind delayed referrals to the Hand Clinic.

Methods:

This is a cross-sectional questionnaire-based study conducted at 5 major hospitals in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia between June 2015 and August 2015. A questionnaire of 6 questions (multiple choice closed-ended questions) was given to obstetricians, pediatricians, and physio-/occupational therapists’ in these selected hospitals. The total score out of 6 was categorized as good, adequate, and inadequate knowledge if the score is 5-6, 3-4, and less than 3; respectively. The data were analyzed with Chi-square, fisher exact, Analysis of Variance, and Post-hoc tests where appropriate.

Results:

A total of 323 subjects participated in the study. For positions, the best mean score (for all 6 questions) was scored by consultants and the score was only 2.95 out of 6. For hospitals, Hospital IV scored the best mean score (2.99). The mean scores were not significantly different between different specialties.

Conclusion:

Inadequate knowledge seems to be a reason for delayed referrals of cases of obstetric brachial plexus injury to Hand Clinics in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Utility of ultrasound-guided injection of botulinum toxin type A for muscle imbalance in children with obstetric brachial plexus palsy: Description of the procedure and action protocol

INTRODUCTION

Obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) usually has a favourable prognosis. However, nearly one third of all severe cases have permanent sequelae causing a high level of disability. In this study, we explore the effectiveness of ultrasound-guided injection of botulinum toxin A (BoNT-A) and describe the procedure.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We designed a prospective, descriptive study including patients with moderate to severe OBPP who were treated between January 2010 and December 2014. We gathered demographic data, type of OBPP, and progression. Treatment effectiveness was assessed with the Active Movement Scale (AMS), the Mallet classification, and video recordings.

RESULTS

We gathered a total of 14 133 newborns, 15 of whom had OBPP (1.6 per 1000 live births). Forty percent of the cases had severe OBPP (0.4/1000), a dystocic delivery, and APGAR scores < 5; mean weight was 4038g. Mean age at treatment onset was 11.5 months. The muscles most frequently receiving BoNT-A injections were the pronator teres, subscapularis, teres major, latissimus dorsi, and pectoralis major. All the patients who completed the follow-up period (83%) experienced progressive improvements: up to 3 points on the AMS and a mean score of 19.5 points out of 25 on the Mallet classification at 2 years. Treatment improved muscle function and abnormal posture in all cases. Surgery was avoided in 3 patients and delayed in one. Adverse events were mild and self-limited.

CONCLUSIONS

Due to its safety and effectiveness, BoNT-A may be used off-label as an adjuvant to physical therapy and/or surgery in moderate to severe OBPP. Ultrasound may increase effectiveness and reduce adverse effects.

Current concepts in plasticity and nerve transfers: relationship between surgical techniques and outcomes

OBJECTIVE Neuroplasticity is analyzed in this article as the capacity of the CNS to adapt to external and internal stimuli. It is being increasingly recognized as an important factor for the successful outcome of nerve transfers. Better-known factors are the number of axons that cross the coaptation site, the time interval between trauma and repair, and age. Neuroplasticity is mediated initially by synaptic and neurotransmitter changes. Over time, the activation of previously existing but lowly active connections in the brain cortex contributes further. Dendritic sprouting and axonal elongation might also take place but are less likely to be prominent. METHODS The authors reviewed different factors that play roles in neuroplasticity and functional regeneration after specific nerve transfers. RESULTS The authors found that these different factors include, among others, the distance between cortical areas of the donor and receptor neurons, the presence versus absence of preexisting lowly active interneuronal connections, gross versus fine movement restoration, rehabilitation, brain trauma, and age. CONCLUSIONS The potential for plasticity should be taken into consideration by surgeons when planning surgical strategy and postoperative rehabilitation, because its influence on results cannot be denied.

Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy in Children Aged 0 to 2.5 Years; Parent-Perceived Family Impact, Quality of Life, and Upper Extremity Functioning

BACKGROUND

To investigate whether parents perceive impact of neonatal brachial plexus palsy on family and quality of life and upper extremity functioning in children less than 2.5 years.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study used the PedsQL Family Impact Module (36 items/one total/four scales/scores 0 to 100), TNO-AZL (Dutch Organisation of Applied Natural Science and Academic Hospital Leiden) Preschool Children Quality of Life (43 items/12 scales/scores 0 to 100) and 21 upper extremity functioning questions. Associations between neonatal brachial plexus palsy/patient characteristics and family impact, perceived quality of life, and upper extremity functioning were investigated using regression analysis.

RESULTS

Parents of 59 children (median age, 18 months) participated, 49 with C5-C6/C5-C7 lesions. Median Family Impact Module and TNO-AZL Preschool Children Quality of Life scores were 81.3 to 100.0/100.0 and 78.6 to 100.0/100.0. TNO-AZL Preschool Children Quality of Life scores did not differ significantly to healthy references except for stomach, skin, communication, and motor functioning problems. Parents reported around three upper extremity functioning problems. Greater lesion extent, lower age, still being in follow-up, and right-sided lesions were associated with greater family impact (P < 0.01 to P < 0.1). No clinically relevant associations were found for perceived quality of life. Greater lesion extent and nerve surgery history were associated with more upper extremity functioning problems (P < 0.01). Problems were associated with parental worrying (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Parents perceive having a child with neonatal brachial plexus palsy as impacting on their family depending on the side and severity of the lesion, treatment history, still being in follow-up, and age. They perceive the child's quality of life as relatively normal and not significantly different to healthy peers. However, parents noticed upper extremity functioning problems which increased parental worrying. Health care specialists should take these findings into account to better inform or counsel parents in an early stage during treatment.

Oberlin's procedure in children with obstetric brachial plexus palsy

PURPOSE

Most cases of obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) involve C5 and C6 nerve roots (Erb's palsy). In those cases, re-establishing the elbow flexion is the primary goal of surgery. The partial transfer of the ulnar nerve to the musculocutaneous nerve (Oberlin's procedure) is widely used in adults, but incipient in children. The purpose of this study is to describe the results obtained with such procedure as regards the improvement of the elbow flexion and donor nerve morbidity.

METHOD

Thirteen children aged 9 to 15 months underwent Oberlin's procedure. They were assessed preoperatively and 1 year postoperatively using the active movement scale and also according to the functionality of the affected limb. All of them were evaluated because of the possibility of movement loss resulting from the donor nerve. We used the non-parametric, statistic Wilcoxon signed rank test (α = 0,05) method.

RESULTS

There was a significant improvement in the active elbow flexion between pre- and postoperative periods. Eleven children presented functional improvement. All of them maintained negative cookie test 1 year after the surgery. We did not observe any loss related to the donor nerve in terms of wrist flexion.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that Oberlin's procedure can be an effective and safe alternative to treat elbow flexion in Erb's palsy.

Functional outcomes of infants with Narakas grade 1 birth-related brachial plexus palsy undergoing neurotization compared with infants who did not require surgery

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the functional outcomes of infants who underwent neurotization for shoulder abduction and elbow flexion in Narakas grade 1 birth-related brachial plexus palsy (BRBPP) and compare this cohort to children who progressed past the point of needing intervention.

METHODS

A cohort study was conducted at a single center between 1999 and 2010. Two-hundred and eight infants were identified with BRBPP that presented for neurosurgical care as infants. Of those, 38 (18 %) received neurosurgical intervention with approximate 2-year follow-up. Only infants undergoing cranial nerve XI to suprascapular nerve neurotization for shoulder abduction (SA) weakness and medial pectoral nerve to musculocutaneous nerve neurotization for elbow flexion (EF) weakness were included. In addition, 30 infants who improved past the need for surgical intervention and had been followed for close to 24 months were identified for comparison. Descriptive statistics and exploratory analysis were performed using SAS 9.2 and JMP 9.0.2.

RESULTS

Shoulder abduction For SA, there were no differences in age at presentation between the operative (6-9 months) and non-operative (5-9 months) groups (p = 0.99). Infants in the operative cohort had significantly worse initial function (p = 0.008). At 2-year follow-up, the two groups had become similar (p = 1.0). Elbow flexion For EF, there were no differences in age at presentation between the operative (6-8 months) and non-operative (5-8.5 months) groups (p = 0.98). Infants in the operative cohort had significantly worse initial function (p = 0.002). At 2-year follow-up, those two groups had become similar (p = 0.26).

CONCLUSIONS

Infants undergoing neurotization for Narakas grade 1 brachial plexus injury had similar long-term function to those who had improved and never required surgery. The preoperative exam findings were significantly different between the intervened and non-intervened groups, while the postoperative exam findings were not.

Obstetric brachial plexus palsy: reviewing the literature comparing the results of primary versus secondary surgery

Obstetric brachial plexus injuries (OBPP) are a relatively common stretch injury of the brachial plexus that occurs during delivery. Roughly 30 % of patients will not recover completely and will need a surgical repair. Two main treatment strategies have been used: primary surgery, consisting in exploring and reconstructing the affected portions of the brachial plexus within the first few months of the patient's life, and secondary procedures that include tendon or muscle transfers, osteotomies, and other orthopedic techniques. Secondary procedures can be done as the only surgical treatment of OBPP or after primary surgery, in order to minimize any residual deficits. Two things are crucial to achieving a good outcome: (1) the appropriate selection of patients, to separate those who will spontaneously recover from those who will recover only partially or not at all; and (2) a good surgical technique. The objective of the present review is to assess the published literature concerning certain controversial issues in OBPP, especially in terms of the true current state of primary and secondary procedures, their results, and the respective roles each plays in modern-day treatment of this complex pathology. Considerable published evidence compiled over decades of surgical experience favors primary nerve surgery as the initial therapeutic step in patients who do not recover spontaneously, followed by secondary surgeries for further functional improvement. As described in this review, the results of such treatment can greatly ameliorate function in affected limbs. For best results, multi-disciplinary teams should treat these patients.