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Utkina-Sosunova I, Chiorazzi A, de Planell-Saguer M, Li H, Meregalli C, Pozzi E, Carozzi VA, Canta A, Monza L, Alberti P, Fumagalli G, Karan C, Moayedi Y, Przedborski S, Cavaletti G, Lotti F. Molsidomine provides neuroprotection against vincristine-induced peripheral neurotoxicity through soluble guanylyl cyclase activation. Sci Rep 2024; 14:19341. [PMID: 39164364 PMCID: PMC11336221 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-70294-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Peripheral neurotoxicity is a dose-limiting adverse reaction of primary frontline chemotherapeutic agents, including vincristine. Neuropathy can be so disabling that patients drop out of potentially curative therapy, negatively impacting cancer prognosis. The hallmark of vincristine neurotoxicity is axonopathy, yet its underpinning mechanisms remain uncertain. We developed a comprehensive drug discovery platform to identify neuroprotective agents against vincristine-induced neurotoxicity. Among the hits identified, SIN-1-an active metabolite of molsidomine-prevents vincristine-induced axonopathy in both motor and sensory neurons without compromising vincristine anticancer efficacy. Mechanistically, we found that SIN-1's neuroprotective effect is mediated by activating soluble guanylyl cyclase. We modeled vincristine-induced peripheral neurotoxicity in rats to determine molsidomine therapeutic potential in vivo. Vincristine administration induced severe nerve damage and mechanical hypersensitivity that were attenuated by concomitant treatment with molsidomine. This study provides evidence of the neuroprotective properties of molsidomine and warrants further investigations of this drug as a therapy for vincristine-induced peripheral neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Utkina-Sosunova
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Alessia Chiorazzi
- Experimental Neurology Unit, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Mariangels de Planell-Saguer
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Hai Li
- Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, USA
- Sulzberger Columbia Genome Center, High Throughput Screening Facility, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Cristina Meregalli
- Experimental Neurology Unit, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Eleonora Pozzi
- Experimental Neurology Unit, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Valentina Alda Carozzi
- Experimental Neurology Unit, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Annalisa Canta
- Experimental Neurology Unit, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Laura Monza
- Experimental Neurology Unit, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Paola Alberti
- Experimental Neurology Unit, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
- Fondazione IRCCS San Gerardo Dei Tintori, Monza, Italy
| | - Giulia Fumagalli
- Experimental Neurology Unit, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Charles Karan
- Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, USA
- Sulzberger Columbia Genome Center, High Throughput Screening Facility, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Yalda Moayedi
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Serge Przedborski
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Guido Cavaletti
- Experimental Neurology Unit, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Monza, Italy
- Fondazione IRCCS San Gerardo Dei Tintori, Monza, Italy
| | - Francesco Lotti
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA.
- Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA.
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032, USA.
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Rijal S, Jang SH, Cho DH, Han SK. Hydrogen peroxide suppresses excitability of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons in adult mouse. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:939699. [PMID: 36387844 PMCID: PMC9650413 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.939699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been reported that reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived from oxygen molecule reduction can interfere with the cross-talk between the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and other endocrine axes, thus affecting fertility. Furthermore, ROS have been linked to GnRH receptor signaling in gonadotropes involved in gonadotropin release. There has been evidence that ROS can interfere with the HPG axis and gonadotropin release at various levels. However, the direct effect of ROS on gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neuron remains unclear. Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), an ROS source, on GnRH neuronal excitabilities in transgenic GnRH-green fluorescent protein-tagged mice using the whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology. In adults, H2O2 at high concentrations (mM level) hyperpolarized most GnRH neurons tested, whereas low concentrations (pM to μM) caused slight depolarization. In immature GnRH neurons, H2O2 exposure induced excitation. The sensitivity of GnRH neurons to H2O2 was increased with postnatal development. The effect of H2O2 on adult female GnRH neurons was found to be estrous cycle-dependent. Hyperpolarization mediated by H2O2 persisted in the presence of tetrodotoxin, a voltage-gated Na+ channel blocker, and amino-acids receptor blocking cocktail containing blockers for the ionotropic glutamate receptors, glycine receptors, and GABAA receptors, indicating that H2O2 could act on GnRH neurons directly. Furthermore, glibenclamide, an ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) channel blocker, completely blocked H2O2-mediated hyperpolarization. Increasing endogenous H2O2 by inhibiting glutathione peroxidase decreased spontaneous activities of most GnRH neurons. We conclude that ROS can act as signaling molecules for regulating GnRH neuron's excitability and that adult GnRH neurons are sensitive to increased ROS concentration. Results of this study demonstrate that ROS have direct modulatory effects on the HPG axis at the hypothalamic level to regulate GnRH neuron's excitabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh Rijal
- Department of Oral Physiology, School of Dentistry and Institute of Oral Bioscience, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju, South Korea
| | - Seon Hui Jang
- Department of Oral Physiology, School of Dentistry and Institute of Oral Bioscience, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju, South Korea
| | - Dong Hyu Cho
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Jeonbuk National University Medical School, Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University-Biomedical Research Institute for Medical Sciences, Jeonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju, South Korea
- *Correspondence: Dong Hyu Cho, ; Seong Kyu Han,
| | - Seong Kyu Han
- Department of Oral Physiology, School of Dentistry and Institute of Oral Bioscience, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju, South Korea
- *Correspondence: Dong Hyu Cho, ; Seong Kyu Han,
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An S. Nitric Oxide in Dental Pulp Tissue: From Molecular Understanding to Clinical Application in Regenerative Endodontic Procedures. TISSUE ENGINEERING PART B-REVIEWS 2020; 26:327-347. [PMID: 32131706 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2019.0316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO), which is synthesized by the enzyme NO synthase (NOS), is a versatile endogenous molecule with multiple biological effects on many tissues and organs. In dental pulp tissue, NO has been found to play multifaceted roles in regulating physiological activities, inflammation processes, and tissue repair events, such as cell proliferation, neuronal degeneration, angiogenesis, and odontoblastic differentiation. However, there is a deficiency of detailed discussion on the NO-mediated interactions between inflammation and reparative/regenerative responses in wounded dental pulp tissue, which is a central determinant of ultimate clinical outcomes. Thus, the purpose of this review is to outline the current molecular understanding on the roles of Janus-faced molecule NO in dental pulp physiology, inflammation, and reparative activities. Based on this knowledge, advanced physicochemical techniques designed to manipulate the therapeutic potential of NOS and NO production in endodontic regeneration procedures are further discussed. Impact statement The interaction between inflammation and reparative/regenerative responses is very important for regenerative endodontic procedures, which are biologically based approaches intended to replace damaged tissues. Inside dental pulp tissue, endogenous nitric oxide (NO) is generated mainly by immunocompetent cells and dental pulp cells and mediates not only inflammatory/immune activities but also signaling cascades that regulate tissue repair and reconstruction, indicating its involvement in both tissue destruction and regeneration. Thus, it is feasible that NO acts as one of the indicators and modulators in dental pulp repair or regeneration under physiological and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaofeng An
- Department of Operative Dentistry and Endodontics, Guanghua School of Stomatology, Hospital of Stomatology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China.,Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Stomatology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China
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Distinct functions of soluble guanylyl cyclase isoforms NO-GC1 and NO-GC2 in inflammatory and neuropathic pain processing. Pain 2019; 160:607-618. [PMID: 30422870 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
A large body of evidence indicates that nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP signaling essentially contributes to the processing of chronic pain. In general, NO-induced cGMP formation is catalyzed by 2 isoforms of guanylyl cyclase, NO-sensitive guanylyl cyclase 1 (NO-GC1) and 2 (NO-GC2). However, the specific functions of the 2 isoforms in pain processing remain elusive. Here, we investigated the distribution of NO-GC1 and NO-GC2 in the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia, and we characterized the behavior of mice lacking either isoform in animal models of pain. Using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, we demonstrate that both isoforms are localized to interneurons in the spinal dorsal horn with NO-GC1 being enriched in inhibitory interneurons. In dorsal root ganglia, the distribution of NO-GC1 and NO-GC2 is restricted to non-neuronal cells with NO-GC2 being the major isoform in satellite glial cells. Mice lacking NO-GC1 demonstrated reduced hypersensitivity in models of neuropathic pain, whereas their behavior in models of inflammatory pain was normal. By contrast, mice lacking NO-GC2 exhibited increased hypersensitivity in models of inflammatory pain, but their neuropathic pain behavior was unaltered. Cre-mediated deletion of NO-GC1 or NO-GC2 in spinal dorsal horn neurons recapitulated the behavioral phenotypes observed in the global knockout. Together, these results indicate that cGMP produced by NO-GC1 or NO-GC2 in spinal dorsal horn neurons exert distinct, and partly opposing, functions in chronic pain processing.
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Yu Y, Park SJ, Beyak MJ. Inducible nitric oxide synthase-derived nitric oxide reduces vagal satiety signalling in obese mice. J Physiol 2018; 597:1487-1502. [PMID: 30565225 DOI: 10.1113/jp276894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS Obesity is associated with disrupted satiety regulation. Mice with diet-induced obesity have reduced vagal afferent neuronal excitability and a decreased afferent response to satiety signals. A low grade inflammation occurs in obesity with increased expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Inhibition of iNOS in diet-induced obese mice restored vagal afferent neuronal excitability, increased the afferent response to satiety mediators and distention of the gut, and reduced short-term energy intake. A prolonged inhibition of iNOS reduced energy intake and body weight gain during the first week, and reduced amounts of epididymal fat after 3 weeks. We identified a novel pathway underlying disrupted satiety regulation in obesity. Blocking of this pathway might be clinically useful for the management of obesity. ABSTRACT Vagal afferents regulate feeding by transmitting satiety signals to the brain. Mice with diet-induced obesity have reduced vagal afferent sensitivity to satiety signals. We investigated whether inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)-derived NO contributed to this reduction. C57BL/6J mice were fed a high- or low-fat diet for 6-8 weeks. Nodose ganglia and jejunum were analysed by immunoblotting for iNOS expression; NO production was measured using a fluorometric assay. Nodose neuron excitability and intestinal afferent sensitivity were evaluated by whole-cell patch clamp and in vitro afferent recording, respectively. Expression of iNOS and production of NO were increased in nodose ganglia and the small intestine in obese mice. Inhibition of iNOS in obese mice by pre-treatment with an iNOS inhibitor increased nodose neuron excitability via 2-pore-domain K+ channel leak currents, restored afferent sensitivity to satiety signals and reduced short-term energy intake. Obese mice given the iNOS inhibitor daily for 3 weeks had reduced energy intake and decreased body weight gain during the first week, compared to mice given saline, and lower amounts of epididymal fat at the end of 3 weeks. Inhibition of iNOS or blocking the action of iNOS-derived NO on vagal afferent pathways might comprise therapeutic strategies for hyperphagia and obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yu
- Gastrointestinal Disease Research Unit, Kingston General Hospital, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Sung Jin Park
- Gastrointestinal Disease Research Unit, Kingston General Hospital, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Michael J Beyak
- Gastrointestinal Disease Research Unit, Kingston General Hospital, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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Mata-Bermudez A, Izquierdo T, de Los Monteros-Zuñiga E, Coen A, Godínez-Chaparro B. Antiallodynic effect induced by [6]-gingerol in neuropathic rats is mediated by activation of the serotoninergic system and the nitric oxide-cyclic guanosine monophosphate-adenosine triphosphate-sensitive K + channel pathway. Phytother Res 2018; 32:2520-2530. [PMID: 30251306 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The present study evaluated the possible antiallodynic effect induced by [6]-gingerol in rats with L5-L6 spinal nerve ligation (SNL). Moreover, we determined the possible mechanism underlying the antiallodynic effect induced by [6]-gingerol in neuropathic rats. The animals underwent L5-L6 SNL for the purpose of developing tactile allodynia. Tactile allodynia was measured with von Frey filaments. Intrathecal administration of [6]-gingerol reversed SNL-induced tactile allodynia. The [6]-gingerol-induced antiallodynic effect was prevented by the intrathecal administration of methiothepin (30 μg per rat; nonselective 5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT] antagonist), WAY-100635 (6 μg per rat; selective 5-HT1A receptor antagonist), SB-224289 (5 μg per rat; selective 5-HT1B receptor antagonist), BRL-15572 (4 μg per rat; selective 5-HT1D receptor antagonist), and SB-659551 (6 μg per rat; selective 5-HT5A receptor antagonist), but naloxone (50 μg per rat; nonselective opioid receptor antagonist) did not prevent the [6]-gingerol-induced antiallodynic effect. Moreover, intrathecal administration of Nω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (100 μg per rat; nonselective nitric oxide [NO] synthase inhibitor), 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (10 μg per rat; inhibitor of guanylate cyclase), and glibenclamide (50 μg per rat; channel blocker of adenosine triphosphate [ATP]-sensitive K+ channels) prevented the [6]-gingerol-induced antiallodynic effect. These data suggest that the antiallodynic effect induced by [6]-gingerol is mediated by the serotoninergic system involving the activation of 5-HT1A/1B/1D/5A receptors, as well as the NO-cyclic guanosine monophosphate-ATP-sensitive K+ channel pathway but not by the opioidergic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Mata-Bermudez
- Departamento de Sistemas Biológicos, División de Ciencias Biológicas y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Teresa Izquierdo
- Departamento de Sistemas Biológicos, División de Ciencias Biológicas y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Espinosa de Los Monteros-Zuñiga
- Departamento de Sistemas Biológicos, División de Ciencias Biológicas y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Arrigo Coen
- Departamento de Matemáticas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Beatriz Godínez-Chaparro
- Departamento de Sistemas Biológicos, División de Ciencias Biológicas y de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, Mexico City, Mexico
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Influence of Nonspecific Inhibitor of NO-Synthase L-NAME on Electric Characteristics of Premotor Interneurons of Terrestrial Snails. BIONANOSCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12668-018-0533-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Lee HI, Park BR, Chun SW. Reactive oxygen species increase neuronal excitability via activation of nonspecific cation channel in rat medullary dorsal horn neurons. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2017; 21:371-376. [PMID: 28706450 PMCID: PMC5507775 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2017.21.4.371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Revised: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The caudal subnucleus of the spinal trigeminal nucleus (medullary dorsal horn; MDH) receives direct inputs from small diameter primary afferent fibers that predominantly transmit nociceptive information in the orofacial region. Recent studies indicate that reactive oxygen species (ROS) is involved in persistent pain, primarily through spinal mechanisms. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of xanthine/xanthine oxidase (X/XO) system, a known generator of superoxide anion (O2·−), on membrane excitability in the rat MDH neurons. For this, we used patch clamp recording and confocal imaging. An application of X/XO (300 µM/30 mU) induced membrane depolarization and inward currents. When slices were pretreated with ROS scavengers, such as phenyl N-tert-butylnitrone (PBN), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase, X/XO-induced responses decreased. Fluorescence intensity in the DCF-DA and DHE-loaded MDH cells increased on the application of X/XO. An anion channel blocker, 4,4-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2-disulfonic acid (DIDS), significantly decreased X/XO-induced depolarization. X/XO elicited an inward current associated with a linear current-voltage relationship that reversed near −40 mV. X/XO-induced depolarization reduced in the presence of La3+, a nonselective cation channel (NSCC) blocker, and by lowering the external sodium concentration, indicating that membrane depolarization and inward current are induced by influx of Na+ ions. In conclusion, X/XO-induced ROS modulate the membrane excitability of MDH neurons, which was related to the activation of NSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hae In Lee
- Department of Dental Hygiene, Gwangyang Health Science University, Gwangyang 57764, Korea
| | - Byung Rim Park
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan 54538, Korea
| | - Sang Woo Chun
- Department of Oral Physiology, College of Dentistry, Wonkwang University, Iksan 54538, Korea
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Bradley SA, Steinert JR. Characterisation and comparison of temporal release profiles of nitric oxide generating donors. J Neurosci Methods 2015; 245:116-24. [PMID: 25749567 PMCID: PMC4401449 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide release profiles were characterised for commonly used donors. Released NO differs greatly between donors and depends on storage conditions. High release donors (NOC-5, PAPA NONOate) decay quickly. SNP and GSNO show greater stability releasing consistent lower NO levels. This comprehensive characterisation provides knowledge to define NO concentrations released in vitro.
Background Nitric oxide (NO) is a vital signalling molecule in a variety of tissues including the neuronal, vascular and reproductive system. However, its high diffusibility and inactivation make characterisation of nitrergic signalling difficult. The use of NO donors is essential to characterise downstream signalling pathways but knowledge of donor release capacities is lacking, thus making comparisons of donor responses difficult. New method This study characterises NO profiles of commonly used NO donors. Donors were stored under defined conditions and temporal release profiles detected to allow determination of released NO concentrations. Results Using NO-sensitive microsensors we assessed release profiles of NO donors following different storage times and conditions. We found that donors such as NOC-5 and PAPA-NONOate decayed substantially within days, whereas SNP and GSNO showed greater stability releasing consistent levels of NO over days. In all donors tested, the amount of released NO differs between frozen and unfrozen stocks. Comparison with existing method(s) Fluorescent and amperometric approaches to measure NO concentrations yield a wide range of levels. However, due to a lack of characterisation of the release profiles, inconsistent effects on NO signalling have been widely documented. Our systematic assessment of release profiles of a range of NO donors therefore provides new essential data allowing for improved and defined investigations of nitrergic signalling. Conclusions This is the first systematic comparison of temporal release profiles of different NO donors allowing researchers to compare conditions across different studies and the use of defined NO levels by choosing specific donors and concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie A Bradley
- MRC Toxicology Unit, Hodgkin Building, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 9HN, UK
| | - Joern R Steinert
- MRC Toxicology Unit, Hodgkin Building, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 9HN, UK.
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