Polysaccharides from Enteromorpha prolifera Improve Glucose Metabolism in Diabetic Rats

Screening of Platycodonis Radix Fractions for Antiobesity Activities and Elucidation of Its Molecular Mechanisms in High-Fat Diet-Fed C57BL/6 Mice

Obesity is a threat to public health and effective new medications are required. Platycodonis Radix (PR) is a traditional medicinal/dietary plant with activities against obesity. Using mice given a diet rich in fat, the antiobesity components of PR were identified and their molecular mechanisms were clarified further in this investigation. Initially, the impacts of PR fractions on liver histology and biochemical markers were assessed. Subsequently, the degrees of lipogenic and lipolytic gene and protein expressions were determined. Oral administration of PR polysaccharides (PG) (0.80 g/kg body weight) improved liver function (alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase) and its antioxidant activities (total superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and malondialdehyde), as well as alleviated blood lipid (total cholesterol, total triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol) values, inflammatory systemic (TNF-α and IL-1β), and histological abnormalities within the liver. Furthermore, PG administration downregulated the expression for lipogenic genes (ACC and FAS) and upregulated the expression for the lipolytic gene (PPARα, LPL, CPT1, and HSL). Importantly, PG raised AMPK phosphorylation and decreased SREBP-1c protein synthesis. Thus, it is possible that PG stimulates the AMPK-LPL/HSL path (lipolytic route) plus the AMPK-ACC/PPARα-CPT1 path (associated to β-oxidation of fatty acids), while inhibiting the AMPK/(SREBP-1c)-ACC/FAS path (lipogenic route). In summary, PG has the ability to regulate lipid metabolism, and it may be useful to pharmacologically activate AMPK with PG to prevent and cure obesity.

Marine Compounds and Age-Related Diseases: The Path from Pre-Clinical Research to Approved Drugs for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases and Diabetes

Ageing represents a main risk factor for several pathologies. Among them, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are predominant in the elderly population and often require prolonged use of multiple drugs due to their chronic nature and the high proportion of co-morbidities. Hence, research is constantly looking for novel, effective molecules to treat CVD and T2DM with minimal side effects. Marine active compounds, holding a great diversity of chemical structures and biological properties, represent interesting therapeutic candidates to treat these age-related diseases. This review summarizes the current state of research on marine compounds for the treatment of CVD and T2DM, from pre-clinical studies to clinical investigations and approved drugs, highlighting the potential of marine compounds in the development of new therapies, together with the limitations in translating pre-clinical results into human application.

Acupuncture alleviates CUMS-induced depression-like behaviors of rats by regulating oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and ferroptosis

BACKGROUND

The treatment of depression with acupuncture has been documented. The mechanism behind acupuncture's curative and preventative effects is still unknown.

METHODS

The current study examined the effects of acupuncture on depression-like behaviors in a rat model of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS), while also exploring its potential mechanisms. A total of six groups of rats were randomly assigned: control, CUMS, acupuncture, fluoxetine, acupoint catgut embedding and sham acupoint catgut embedding. Fluoxetine (2.1 mg/kg) and acupoint catgut embedding were used for comparative research to acupuncture. The modelling evaluation is measured by body weight and behavior tests. Western blotting and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction were used to detect the proteins and mRNA expression of Silent information regulator 1 (Sirt1)/ nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/ heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)/ Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) pathway in the hippocampus. The expression of oxidative stress (OS)-related proteins and inflammatory cytokines in the serum was detected with ELISA. Immunofluorescence showed microglia and astrocytes activity in the hippocampus.

RESULTS

Acupuncture and fluoxetine could alleviate CUMS-induced depression-like behaviors. Acupuncture was also found to effectively reverse the levels of MDA, SOD, GSH, GSH-PX and T-AOC, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in the serum of CUMS-induced rats. Rats with CUMS showed decreased levels of Sirt1, Nrf2, HO-1 and GPX4 in the hippocampus, while acupuncture treatment could partly reverse the diminished effects. In addition, acupuncture treatment significantly reduced the activation of hippocampal microglia and astrocytes in CUMS-induced rats.

CONCLUSION

The study's findings indicate that acupuncture has the potential to mitigate depression-like behaviors in rats induced with CUMS by mitigating OS and reducing neuroinflammation.

The protective effect of Enteromorpha prolifera polysaccharide on alcoholic liver injury in C57BL/6 mice

An alcohol-induced liver injury model was induced in C57BL/6 mice to assess the protective efficacy of Enteromorpha prolifera polysaccharides (EP) against liver damage. Histological alterations in the liver were examined following hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining. Biochemical assay kits and ELISA kits were employed to analyze serum and liver biochemical parameters, as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes and alcohol metabolism-related enzymes. The presence of oxidative stress-related proteins in the liver was detected using western blotting. Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry were used to profile serum metabolites in mice. The findings demonstrated that EP-H (100 mg/Kg) reduced serum ALT and AST activity by 2.31-fold and 2.32-fold, respectively, when compared to the alcohol-induced liver injury group. H&E staining revealed a significant attenuation of microvesicular steatosis and ballooning pathology in the EP-H group compared to the model group. EP administration was found to enhance alcohol metabolism by regulating metabolite-related enzymes (ADH and ALDH) and decreasing CYP2E1 expression. EP also modulated the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway to bolster hepatic antioxidant capacity. Furthermore, EP restored the levels of lipid metabolites (Glycine, Butanoyl-CoA, and Acetyl-CoA) to normalcy. In summary, EP confers protection to the liver through the regulation of antioxidant activity and lipid metabolites in the murine liver.

Anti-inflammatory potential of ulvan

Green seaweeds are a widespread group of marine macroalgae that could be regarded as biorenewable source of valuable compounds, in particular sulfated polysaccharides like ulvans with interesting biological properties. Among them, anti-inflammatory activity represents an interesting target, since ulvans could potentially avoid side effects of conventional therapies. However, a great variability in ulvan content, composition, structure and properties occurs depending on seaweed specie and growth and processing conditions. All these aspects should be carefully considered in order to have reproducible and well characterized products. This review presents some concise ideas on ulvan composition and general concepts on inflammation mechanisms. Then, the main focus is on the importance of adequate selection of extraction, depolymerization and purification technologies followed by an updated survey on anti-inflammatory properties of ulvans through modulation of different signaling pathways. The potential application in a number of diseases, with special emphasis on inflammaging, gut microbiota dysbiosis, wound repair, and metabolic diseases is also discussed. This multidisciplinary overview tries to present the potential of ulvans considering not only mechanistic, but also processing and applications aspects, trusting that it can aid in the development and application of this widely available and renewable resource as an efficient and versatile anti-inflammatory agent.

Microbiome-metabolome analysis reveals alterations in the composition and metabolism of caecal microbiota and metabolites with dietary Enteromorpha polysaccharide and Yeast glycoprotein in chickens

The intestinal microbiome is responsible for the fermentation of complex carbohydrates and orchestrates the immune system through gut microbiota-derived metabolites. In our previous study, we reported that supplementation of Enteromorpha polysaccharide (EP) and yeast glycoprotein (YG) in combination synergistically improved antioxidant activities, serum lipid profile, and fatty acid metabolism in chicken. However, the mechanism of action of these polysaccharides remains elusive. The present study used an integrated 16S-rRNA sequencing technology and untargeted metabolomics technique to reveal the mechanism of action of EP+YG supplementation in broiler chickens fed basal diet or diets supplemented with EP+YG (200mg/kg EP + 200mg/kg YG). The results showed that EP+YG supplementation altered the overall structure of caecal microbiota as evidenced by β diversities analysis. Besides, EP+YG supplementation changed the microbiota composition by altering the community profile at the phylum and genus levels. Furthermore, Spearman correlation analysis indicated a significant correlation between altered microbiota genera vs serum cytokine levels and microbiota genera vs volatile fatty acids production. Predicted functional analysis showed that EP+YG supplementation significantly enriched amino acid metabolism, nucleotide metabolism, glycan biosynthesis and metabolism, energy metabolism, and carbohydrate metabolism. Metabolomics analysis confirmed that EP+YG supplementation modulates a myriad of caecal metabolites by increasing some metabolites, including pyruvic acid, pyridoxine, spermidine, spermine, and dopamine, and decreasing metabolites related to lipid metabolisms such as malonic acid, oleic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid. The quantitative enrichment analysis results further showed that glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, citric acid cycle, tyrosine metabolism, glycine, serine, and threonine metabolism, and cysteine and methionine metabolism were the most important enriched pathways identified with enrichment ratio >11, whereas, fatty acid biosynthesis and biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids pathways were suppressed. Together, the 16S-rRNA and untargeted metabolomics results uncovered that EP+YG supplementation modulates intestinal microbiota and their metabolites, thereby influencing the important metabolism pathways, suggesting a potential feed additive.

Chemical Modification, Characterization, and Activity Changes of Land Plant Polysaccharides: A Review

Plant polysaccharides are widely found in nature and have a variety of biological activities, including immunomodulatory, antioxidative, and antitumoral. Due to their low toxicity and easy absorption, they are widely used in the health food and pharmaceutical industries. However, low activity hinders the wide application. Chemical modification is an important method to improve plant polysaccharides' physical and chemical properties. Through chemical modification, the antioxidant and immunomodulatory abilities of polysaccharides were significantly improved. Some polysaccharides with poor water solubility also significantly improved their water solubility after modification. Chemical modification of plant polysaccharides has become an important research direction. Research on the modification of plant polysaccharides is currently increasing, but a review of the various modification studies is absent. This paper reviews the research progress of chemical modification (sulfation, phosphorylation, acetylation, selenization, and carboxymethylation modification) of land plant polysaccharides (excluding marine plant polysaccharides and fungi plant polysaccharides) during the period of January 2012-June 2022, including the preparation, characterization, and biological activity of modified polysaccharides. This study will provide a basis for the deep application of land plant polysaccharides in food, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals.

Effect of crude polysaccharide from seaweed, Dictyopteris divaricata (CDDP) on gut microbiota restoration and anti-diabetic activity in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced T1DM mice

Type-1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM) is regarded as a multifunctional, immune-related disease which causes massive destruction of islet β-cells in pancreas resulting in hyperglycemic, hypoinsulinemia and hyperlipidimic conditions. The aim of the present study, was to investigate the hypothesis that streptozotocin (STZ)-induced T1DM in Balb/c mice when treated with crude polysaccharide from seaweed, Dictyopteris divaricata (CDDP) depicts improvement in diabetes-related symptoms. Treatment with CDDP resulted in decreased body weight loss, improved food consumption and water intake disbalances. The CDDP effectively improved fasting blood glucose, oral glucose tolerance (OGTT), serum insulin, insulin secretion, rejuvenation of β-cells mass, serum lipid profile and pro-inflammatory cytokines levels. Additionally, treatment with CDDP increased the population of beneficial bacteria such as Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and Lactobacillus at phylum, family and genus levels by 16S rRNA sequencing. Furthermore, immunohistological examination confirmed that CDDP reduces the inflammation and restored the structural morphology of colon and upraised the levels of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), Mucin-2 (MUC-2) and tight-junction proteins (TJs) whereby maintaining the gut structures and barrier permeability. Thus, the above presented data, highlights the safe and therapeutic effects of crude polysaccharide (CDDP) from D. divaricata in the treatment and restoration of T1DM disorders and can be used as a food supplement alternative to diabetes medicine.

Advances in anti-cancer effects and underlying mechanisms of marine algae polysaccharides

Cancer is a leading cause of death in both developing and developed countries. With the increase in the average global life expectancy, it has become a major health problem and burden for most public healthcare systems worldwide. Due to the fewer side effects of natural compounds than of chemotherapeutic drugs, increasing scientific attention is being focused on the development of anti-cancer drugs derived from natural sources. Marine algae are an interesting source of functional compounds with diverse health-promoting activities. Among these compounds, polysaccharides have attracted considerable interest for many years because of their excellent anti-cancer abilities. They improve the efficacy of conventional chemotherapeutic drugs with relatively low toxicity to normal human cells. However, there are few reviews summarising the unique anti-cancer effects and underlying mechanisms of marine algae polysaccharides (MAPs). Thus, the current review focuses on updating the advances in the discovery and evaluation of MAPs with anti-cancer properties and the elucidation of their mechanisms of action, including the signalling pathways involved. This review aims to provide a deeper understanding of the anti-cancer functions of the natural compounds derived from medicinal marine algae and thereby offer a new perspective on cancer prevention and therapy with high effectiveness and safety.

Ulva (Enteromorpha) Polysaccharides and Oligosaccharides: A Potential Functional Food Source from Green-Tide-Forming Macroalgae

The high-valued utilization of Ulva (previously known as Enteromorpha) bioresources has drawn increasing attention due to the periodic blooms of world-wide green tide. The polysaccharide is the main functional component of Ulva and exhibits various physiological activities. The Ulva oligosaccharide as the degradation product of polysaccharide not only possesses some obvious activities, but also possesses excellent solubility and bioavailability. Both Ulva polysaccharides and oligosaccharides hold promising potential in the food industry as new functional foods or food additives. Studies on Ulva polysaccharides and oligosaccharides are increasing and have been the focus of the marine bioresources field. However, the comprehensive review of this topic is still rare and do not cover the recent advances of the structure, isolation, preparation, activity and applications of Ulva polysaccharides and oligosaccharides. This review systematically summarizes and discusses the recent advances of chemical composition, extraction, purification, structure, and activity of Ulva polysaccharides as well as oligosaccharides. In addition, the potential applications as new functional food and food additives have also been considered, and these will definitely expand the applications of Ulva oligosaccharides in the food and medical fields.

Geniposide Ameliorates Liver Fibrosis Through Reducing Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Respose, Inhibiting Apoptosis and Modulating Overall Metabolism

Liver fibrosis is a progressive liver damage condition caused by various factors and may progress toward liver cirrhosis, and even hepatocellular carcinoma. Many studies have found that the disfunction in metabolism could contribute to the development of liver fibrosis. Geniposide, derived from Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis, has been demonstrated with therapeutic effects on liver fibrosis. However, the exact molecular mechanisms of such liver-protection remain largely unknown. The aim of this study was to explored the effect of geniposide on metabolic regulations in liver fibrosis. We used carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) to construct a mouse model of liver fibrosis and subsequently administered geniposide treatment. Therapeutic effects of geniposide on liver fibrosis were accessed through measuring the levels of hepatic enzymes in serum and the pathological changes in liver. We also investigated the effects of geniposide on inflammatory response, oxidative stress and apoptosis in liver. Furthermore, serum untargeted metabolomics were used to explore the metabolic regulatory mechanisms behind geniposide on liver fibrosis. Our results demonstrated that geniposide could reduce the levels of hepatic enzymes in serum and ameliorate the pathological changes in liver fibrosis mice. Geniposide enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and decreased methane dicarboxylic aldehyde (MDA) levels in liver. Geniposide treatment also decreased the levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a) in liver tissue homogenate. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling assay (TUNEL) staining demonstrated that geniposide could reduce the apoptosis of hepatocytes. Geniposide increased the protein expression of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and downregulated the protein expression of Bcl-2 Associated X (Bax), cleaved-Caspase 3, and cleaved-Caspase 9. Serum untargeted metabolomics analysis demonstrated that geniposide treatment improved the metabolic disorders including glycerophospholipid metabolism, arginine and proline metabolism, and arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism. In conclusion, our study demonstrated the protective effects of geniposide on liver fibrosis. We found that geniposide could treat liver fibrosis by inhibiting oxidative stress, reducing inflammatory response and apoptosis in the liver, and modulating glycerophospholipid, and arginine, proline, and AA metabolism processes.

Extraction Techniques, Biological Activities and Health Benefits of Marine Algae Enteromorpha prolifera Polysaccharide

There is increasing interest in the use of marine algae as functional food additives for improving human health. Enteromorpha (Ulva) prolifera (E. prolifera) is a seaweed green alga (Chlorophyta) that contains many bioactive compounds, of which polysaccharide is the main component. With the advancement of technology in the methods of extraction and analysis, recent studies in in vitro and animals model showed that polysaccharides derived from E. prolifera exert various biological activities, such as gut microbiota modulation, immunomodulation, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, and hypolipidemic. Research evidence has shown that methods of extraction and molecular modification, such as degradation, carboxymethylation, and sulfonation could alter the biological activities of polysaccharides. Therefore, in this review, we discussed the different extraction techniques, structural-activity relationship, and health benefits of sulfated polysaccharides derived from E. prolifera, and suggested future research avenues. This review helps to advance the extraction techniques and promote the application of marine algae polysaccharides as functional food and therapeutic agent.

Enteromorpha polysaccharide-zinc replacing prophylactic antibiotics contributes to improving gut health of weaned piglets

This research aimed to study whether Enteromorpha polysaccharide-zinc (EP-Zn) can act as an alternative to antibiotics in weaned piglet feeds. Two hundred and twenty-four weaned piglets from 14 pens were randomly assigned into 1 of 2 groups according to their body weight and litter size (7 pens/group). The piglets in the antibiotics group were fed with olaquindox at 400 mg/kg and enduracidin at 800 mg/kg basal diet, and piglets in the EP-Zn group were fed with EP-Zn at 800 mg/kg basal diet. One piglet per pen was selected to collect samples after 14 d of feeding. Results showed that EP-Zn supplementation significantly increased the plasma anti-oxidants level compared with the antibiotics group. However, a nonsignificant difference was observed in growth performance between treatment groups. Additionally, the intestinal tight junction (TJ) protein expression and the histopathologic evaluation data showed that EP-Zn contributed to improving intestinal development. Further, piglets in the EP-Zn group had a lower level of intestinal inflammation-related cytokines including IL-6 (P < 0.001), IL-8 (P < 0.05), IL-12 (P < 0.05) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (P < 0.001), and showed an inhibition of the phosphorylation nuclear transcription factor-kappa B (p-NF-κB) (P < 0.05) and total NF-κB (P < 0.001) level in the jejunal mucosa. Taken together, it is supposed that EP-Zn, to some extent, would be a potent alternative to prophylactic antibiotics in improving the health status of weaned piglets.

Enteromorpha prolifera polysaccharide prevents high- fat diet-induced obesity in hamsters: A NMR-based metabolomic evaluation

Enteromorpha prolifera polysaccharide (EP) has been shown to exhibit hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic activities in various experimental models. Here, an ¹ H-NMR-based metabolomic study was conducted to explore the regulatory effects of EP on serum metabolic changes in obese hamsters. High-fat diet (HFD)-fed hamsters were orally administrated with EP (300, 450, or 600 mg/kg) once daily for 12 weeks. Compared with HFD-fed hamsters, EP treatment (450 and 600 mg/kg) significantly decreased the body weight (by 8.69 and 8.24%), liver weight (by 7.87 and 8.25%), epididymal white adipose tissue (by 19.54 and 17.26%), perirenal white adipose tissue (by 28.09 and 28.94%), serum total cholesterol (by 24.31 and 18.61%), triglyceride (by 30.64 and 31.38%), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (by 38.26 and 36.30%), respectively. In addition, EP intervention also significantly decreased hepatic cholesterol (by 23.20, 38.16, and 34.57%) and triglyceride content (by 17.78, 41.47, and 35.50%) as well as serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and ALT/aspartate aminotransferase (AST) ratio. The serum samples of normal diet (ND) group, HFD group and HFD + EP 450 mg/kg (HFD + MEP) group were further analyzed by ¹ H-NMR spectroscopy. Compared with ND group, 17 and 2 metabolites were significantly upregulated and downregulated in HFD group, respectively. Interestingly, EP treatment significantly downregulated nine metabolites and upregulated one metabolite when compared to those in HFD group. Our results indicated that EP intervention partially ameliorated HFD-induced metabolic dysfunction, and the most prominent metabolic pathways included citrate cycle, synthesis and degradation of ketone bodies, pyruvate metabolism, valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation, and arginine biosynthesis. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Enteromorpha prolifera polysaccharide (EP), the main active component of Enteromorpha prolifera, is reported to have many biological activities. However, the antiobesity effect of EP and its corresponding metabolic mechanism have not been reported so far. The results of this study confirmed the antiobesity effect of EP on HFD-induced obese hamsters and elucidated its possible metabolic mechanism. Our study highlighted that EP might be used in weight-loss functional foods.

COL1A1 as a potential new biomarker and therapeutic target for type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a public health problem with a rising incidence worldwide. In this study, a potential new biomarker for T2D and mechanisms underlying the hypoglycemic effects of Enteromorpha prolifera oligosaccharide were investigated. Tandem mass tag labeling with LC-MS/MS was used to identify the differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) between the jejunum of diabetic rats and control rats. Correlations between glycometabolic parameters and DEPs were revealed by a network analysis. The expression levels of target genes in key metabolic pathways were further evaluated to identify candidate biomarkers. Among 6810 total proteins, approximately 88 % were quantified, of which 148 DEPs with a fold change of <0.83 or>1.2 and a corrected p-value of <0.05 were identified. A KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that the hypoglycaemic effects of E. prolifera oligosaccharide involved the PI3K/AKT and extracellular matrix receptor interaction signaling pathways. More importantly, Col1a1 was the most significant gene in the extracellular matrix receptor interaction pathway and was linked to hypoglycaemic activity for the first time. Thus, Col1a1 is a novel potential therapeutic target for alleviating T2D.

Neuroprotective Effect of Carotenoid-Rich Enteromorpha prolifera Extract via TrkB/Akt Pathway against Oxidative Stress in Hippocampal Neuronal Cells

In this study, we found that E. prolifera extract (EAEP) exhibits neuroprotective effects in oxidative stress-induced neuronal cells. EAEP improved cell viability as well as attenuated the formation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptotic bodies in glutamate-treated hippocampal neuronal cells (HT-22). Furthermore, EAEP improved the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and antioxidant enzymes such as heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H quinine oxidoreductase-1 (NQO-1), and glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) via the tropomyosin-related kinase receptor B/ protein kinase B (TrkB/Akt) signaling pathway. In contrast, the pre-incubation of K252a, a TrkB inhibitor, or MK-2206, an Akt-selective inhibitor, ameliorated the neuroprotective effects of EAEP in oxidative stress-induced neuronal cells. These results suggest that EAEP protects neuronal cells against oxidative stress-induced apoptosis by upregulating the expression of BDNF and antioxidant enzymes via the activation of the TrkB/Akt pathway. In conclusion, such an effect of EAEP, which is rich in carotenoid-derived compounds, may justify its application as a food supplement in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.

Immunomodulatory Effects of a Low-Molecular Weight Polysaccharide from Enteromorpha prolifera on RAW 264.7 Macrophages and Cyclophosphamide- Induced Immunosuppression Mouse Models

The water-soluble polysaccharide EP2, from Enteromorpha prolifera, belongs to the group of polysaccharides known as glucuronoxylorhamnan, which mainly contains glucuronic acid (GlcA), xylose (Xyl), and rhamnose (Rha). The aim of this study was to detect the immunomodulatory effects of EP2 on RAW 264.7 macrophages and cyclophosphamide (CYP)-induced immunosuppression mouse models. The cells were treated with EP2 for different time periods (0, 0.5, 1, 3, and 6 h). The results showed that EP2 promoted nitric oxide production and up-regulated the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, in a time-dependent manner. Furthermore, we found that EP2-activated iNOS, COX2, and NLRP3 inflammasomes, and the TLR4/MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway played an important role. Moreover, EP2 significantly increased the body weight, spleen index, thymus index, inflammatory cell counts, and the levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in CYP-induced immunosuppression mouse models. These results indicate that EP2 might be a potential immunomodulatory drug and provide the scientific basis for the comprehensive utilization and evaluation of E. prolifera in future applications.

Structural characterization and anti-lung cancer activity of a sulfated glucurono-xylo-rhamnan from Enteromorpha prolifera

A sulfated glucurono-xylo-rhamnan (EP-3-H) was purified from a green alga, Enteromorpha prolifera. EP-3-H and its oligomers were characterized by high performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry and one and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resource spectroscopy. The structural analysis showed EP-3-H has a backbone of glucurono-xylo-rhamnan, branches with glucuronic acid and sulfated at C3 of rhamnose and/or C2 of xylose. The inhibition of EP-3-H on human lung cancer A549 cell proliferation in vitro and its therapeutic effects in BALB/c-nu mice in vivo were determined to evaluate the anti-lung cancer activity of EP-3-H. The tumor inhibition level was 59 %, suggesting that EP-3-H might be a good candidate for the treatment of lung cancer. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) studies revealed the IC₅₀ on the binding of fibroblast growth factors, (FGF1 and FGF2), to heparin were 0.85 and 1.47 mg/mL, respectively. These results suggest that EP-3-H inhibits cancer proliferation by interacting with these growth factors.

Enhanced Fermentable Sugar Production from Enteromorpha Polysaccharides by the Crude Enzymes of Vibrio sp. H11

In recent years, large-scale outbreaks of the green alga Enteromorpha prolifera in China's offshore waters have posed a serious threat. This study aimed to improve Enteromorpha polysaccharide (EP) enzymatic sugar production using the hydrolase system of Vibrio sp. H11, an EP-utilizing microbial strain. Strain H11 was found to contain 711 carbohydrate-related genes, and 259 genes belong to glycoside hydrolases that have the potential to hydrolyze EP. To maximize the capability of strain H11 to hydrolyze EP, both the culture medium and the composition were optimized. Response surface methodology analysis showed that maximal enzymatic production from strain H11 was 8.43 U/mL after 26-h incubation. When 50 g/L of EP were treated with crude H11 enzyme, the concentration of fermentation sugars increased by 36.12%. Under these conditions, the hydrolysates were capable of generating 3,217 mL/L of biogas and 6.74 g/L of biosolvents, with increases of 28.17 and 7.29%, respectively, compared to controls. The combined application of the H11 enzymatic system and anaerobic fermentation has the potential to improve the comprehensive application of EP.

Palmitic Acid Induces MicroRNA-221 Expression to Decrease Glucose Uptake in HepG2 Cells via the PI3K/AKT/GLUT4 Pathway

Obesity-related insulin resistance and high fatty acid concentrations occur during the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The role of high concentrations of plasma-free fatty acids is not fully understood. In this study, palmitic acid (PA, 0.8 mM for 24 h) induced the expression of miR-221 that bound to phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K) mRNA to inhibit glucose uptake by HepG2 cells. Compared with controls, PA significantly decreased glucose uptake, increased insulin receptor substrate-2 (IRS-2) and miR-221 expression, and decreased phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) mRNA expression. Luciferase reporter assay revealed that miR-221 binding inhibited PI3K expression. Transfection of HepG2 cells with an miR-221 mimic induced miR-221 expression and inhibited the PI3K/AKT pathway. PA decreased glucose uptake in HepG2 cells by inducing the expression of miR-221, which bound to PI3K mRNA and suppressed PI3K/AKT signaling. miR-221 may be a novel target for preventing and treating obesity-induced insulin resistance.

Anti-Diabetic Effects and Mechanisms of Dietary Polysaccharides

Diabetes mellitus is a multifactorial, heterogeneous metabolic disorder, causing various health complications and economic issues, which apparently impacts the human's life. Currently, commercial diabetic drugs are clinically managed for diabetic treatment that has definite side effects. Dietary polysaccharides mainly derive from natural sources, including medicinal plants, grains, fruits, vegetables, edible mushroom, and medicinal foods, and possess anti-diabetic potential. Hence, this review summarizes the effects of dietary polysaccharides on diabetes and underlying molecular mechanisms related to inflammatory factors, oxidative stress, and diabetes in various animal models. The analysis of literature and appropriate data on anti-diabetic polysaccharide from electronic databases was conducted. In vivo and in vitro trials have revealed that treatment of these polysaccharides has hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects, which enhance pancreatic β-cell mass and alleviates β-cell dysfunction. It enhances insulin signaling pathways through insulin receptors and activates the PI3K/Akt pathway, and eventually modulates ERK/JNK/MAPK pathway. In conclusion, dietary polysaccharides can effectively ameliorate hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, low-grade inflammation, and oxidative stress in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and, thus, consumption of polysaccharides can be a valuable choice for diabetic control.

Polysaccharides from Enteromorpha Prolifera Ameliorate Acute Myocardial Infarction in Vitro and in Vivo via Up-Regulating HIF-1α

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is a serious heart disease and the main reason for heart failure and sudden death worldwide. This study investigated the effects of polysaccharides from Enteromorpha prolifera (PEP) on AMI in vitro and in vivo, as well as the underlying mechanisms.Human cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (HCMVEC) were cultured in vitro in an oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) environment to induce injury. The viability and apoptosis of HCMVEC were then detected using CCK-8 assay and Annexin V-FITC/PI staining, respectively. ELISA was performed to measure the concentrations of inflammatory cytokines. Cell transfection was conducted to reduce the expression of HIF-1α. Expression of key factors involving in cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, MEK/ERK, and the NF-κB and mTOR pathways were evaluated using Western blotting. In vivo, Wistar rats were pre-treated by PEP and AMI was induced. The infarct size and cardiac functions (LVEDD, LVEF and LVFS) were measured.In vitro, PEP treatment significantly protected HCMVEC from OGD-induced viability loss, proliferation inhibition, apoptosis, inflammatory cytokine expression, and autophagy. Moreover, PEP enhanced the expression of HIF-1α in HCMVEC via the MEK/ERK pathway. HIF-1α participated in the protective effects of PEP on OGD-treated HCMVEC. Furthermore, PEP attenuated OGD-induced NF-κB pathway activation and promoted the mTOR pathway in HCMVEC. In vivo, PEP pre-treatment reduced the infarct size and enhanced the LVEDD, LVEF and LVFS of rats via up-regulation of HIF-1α.PEP ameliorated AMI in vitro and in vivo through up-regulation of HIF-1α. In vitro, PEP could activate the MEK/ERK and mTOR pathways, but inactivate the NF-κB pathway in OGD-treated HCMVEC.

Polysaccharides derived from natural sources regulate triglyceride and cholesterol metabolism: a review of the mechanisms

This paper presents a comprehensive review of hypolipidemic mechanism of polysaccharides from natural sources.

Marine polysaccharides attenuate metabolic syndrome by fermentation products and altering gut microbiota: An overview

Marine polysaccharides (MPs), including plant, animal, and microbial-derived polysaccharides, can alleviate metabolic syndrome (MetS) by different regulation mechanisms. MPs and their derivatives can attenuate MetS by vary cellular signal pathways, such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α. Also, most of MPs cannot be degraded by human innate enzymes, but they can be degraded and fermented by human gut microbiota. The final metabolic products of these polysaccharides are usually short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which can change the gut microbiota ecology by altering the existing percentage of special microorganisms. In addition, the SCFAs and changed gut microbiota can regulate enteroendocrine hormone secretion, blood glucose, lipid metabolism levels, and other MetS symptoms. Here, we summarize the up-to-date findings on the effects of MPs, particularly marine microbial-derived polysaccharides, and their metabolites on attenuating MetS.

Ethanol Extract from Ulva prolifera Prevents High-Fat Diet-Induced Insulin Resistance, Oxidative Stress, and Inflammation Response in Mice

Ulva prolifera is the major causative species in the green tide, a serious marine ecological disaster, which bloomed in the Yellow Sea and the Bohai Sea of China. However, it is also a popular edible seaweed and its extracts exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. The present study investigated the effects of ethanol extract of U. prolifera (EUP) on insulin sensitivity, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress in high-fat-diet- (HFD-) treated mice. HFD-treated mice obtained drinking water containing 2% or 5% EUP. The results showed that EUP supplementation significantly prevented HFD-induced weight gain of liver and fat. EUP supplementation also improved glucose tolerance and insulin resistance in HFD-treated mice. Moreover, EUP supplementation prevented the increased expression of genes involved in triglyceride synthesis and proinflammatory genes and the decreased expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation in liver of HFD-treated mice. Furthermore, EUP supplementation decreased reactive oxygen species content, while increasing glutathione content and glutathione peroxidase activity in HFD-treated mice. In conclusion, our results showed that EUP improved insulin resistance and had antilipid accumulation and anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects on HFD-treated mice. We suggested that U. prolifera extracts may be regarded as potential candidate for the prevention of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.

Sulfated polysaccharide from Enteromorpha prolifera increases hydrogen sulfide production and attenuates non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in high-fat diet rats

EP upregulates hepatic CBS expression, thus increasing serum H₂S level, which reduces serum TG level and ameliorates NAFLD induced by a high-fat diet.

Sujiaonori-Derived Algal Biomaterials Inhibit Allergic Reaction in Allergen-Sensitized RBL-2H3 Cell Line and Improve Skin Health in Humans

Sujiaonori, a river alga growing in the Kochi prefecture, Japan, contains several bioactive compounds such as sulfated polysaccharides (ulvans), ω-3 fatty acids, and vitamins. Dietary intake of this alga-based supplement has been reported to increase circulatory adiponectin, a salutary hormone that is reported to be associated with healthy longevity and prevents a number of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders. This report highlights the anti-allergic and skin health enhancing effects of Sujiaonori-derived ulvan (Tosalvan) and supplement, respectively. RBL-2H3 cell line was used to investigate the anti-allergic effect of algal SP through the evaluation of β-hexosaminidase activity. Algal sulfated polysaccharides or SP (Tosalvan, Yoshino SP) were extracted from powders of dried alga samples provided by local food manufacturers. Report on the effect of daily dietary intake of Sujiaonori-based supplement on skin health is part of a four-week clinical investigation that, in comparison with a supplement made of 70% corn starch powder and 30% spinach powder mixture (twice 3 g daily), explore the beneficial effects of Sujiaonori algal biomaterial (SBM; 3 g taken twice daily) on cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and skin health in a sample of Japanese women. Transepidermal water loss (TEWL) was the skin health marker used in this study and was measured with the use of a corneometer. Significant reduction of β-hexosaminidase activity was observed in Tosalvan and Yoshino SP-treated cells (vs. control; p < 0.05), whereas dietary intake of SBM markedly reduced TEWL level after four weeks of supplementation, as compared to baseline TEWL (p < 0.001). Additionally, SBM improved TEWL better than the control product (p < 0.001). Findings contained in this report suggest that Sujiaonori-derived Tosalvan and Yoshino SP have anti-allergic potential and that the dietary intake of SBM has a beneficial effect on skin health.

Network Pharmacology Studies on the Bioactive Compounds and Action Mechanisms of Natural Products for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus: A Review

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a kind of chronic and metabolic disease, which can cause a number of diseases and severe complications. Network pharmacology approach is introduced to study DM, which can combine the drugs, target proteins and disease and form drug-target-disease networks. Network pharmacology has been widely used in the studies of the bioactive compounds and action mechanisms of natural products for the treatment of DM due to the multi-components, multi-targets, and lower side effects. This review provides a balanced and comprehensive summary on network pharmacology from current studies, highlighting different bioactive constituents, related databases and applications in the investigations on the treatment of DM especially type 2. The mechanisms related to type 2 DM, including α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory, targeting β cell dysfunction, AMPK signal pathway and PI3K/Akt signal pathway are summarized and critiqued. It suggests that the network pharmacology approach cannot only provide a new research paradigm for natural products, but also improve the current antidiabetic drug discovery strategies. Furthermore, we put forward the perspectives on the reasonable applications of network pharmacology for the therapy of DM and related drug discovery.

Inhibition of hydrogen peroxide induced injuring on human skin fibroblast by Ulva prolifera polysaccharide

Ulva prolifera can protect human skin fibroblast from being injured by hydrogen peroxide. This work studied the composition of Ulva prolifera polysaccharide and identified its physicochemical properties. The results showed that the cell proliferation of 0.5mg/mL crude polysaccharide was 154.4% of that in negative control group. Moreover, ROS detection indices, including DCFH-DA, GSH-PX, MDA and CAT, indicated that crude polysaccharide could improve cellular ability to scavenge free radical and decrease the injury on human skin fibroblast by hydrogen peroxide. In purified polysaccharide, the activity of fraction P1-1 was the highest, with 174.6% of that in negative control group. The average molecular weight of P1-1 was 137kD with 18.0% of sulfate content. This work showed the inhibition of hydrogen peroxide induced injuries on human skin fibroblast by Ulva prolifera polysaccharide, which may further evaluate the application of U. prolifera on cosmetics.

Anti-diabetic polysaccharides from natural sources: A review

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease attracted worldwide concerns, which severely impairs peoples' quality of life and is attributed to several life-threatening complications, including atherosclerosis, nephropathy and retinopathy. The current therapies for DM include mainly oral anti-diabetic drugs and insulin. However, continuous use of these causes insulin resistance and side-effects, and the demand of effective, nontoxic and affordable drugs for DM patients is eager. Several previous studies have shown that non-toxic biological macromolecules, mainly polysaccharides, possess prominent efficacies on DM. Based on these encouraging observations, a great deal of efforts have been focused on discovering anti-diabetic polysaccharides for the development of effective therapeutics for DM. This review focuses on the advancements in the anti-diabetic efficacy of various natural polysaccharides and polysaccharide complexes from 2010 to 2015.