A new sensitive sensor for simultaneous differential pulse voltammetric determination of codeine and acetaminophen using a hydroquinone derivative and multiwall carbon nanotubes carbon paste electrode

Electrochemical methods for the determination of acetaminophen in biological matrices: A critical review in the clinical field

BACKGROUND

Paracetamol or acetaminophen (APAP), or acetaminophen, is a widely used medication for pain relief and fever reduction due to its analgesic and antipyretic properties. However, excessive APAP consumption can lead to severe hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, posing overdose risks. Consequently, the development of analytical methods for an accurate and rapid detection of APAP in biological matrices is of great interest in the health-related fields. Electrochemical methods have emerged as efficient, cost-effective, and sensitive tools for APAP detection in biological samples. In the light of the reported insights, this review examines critically diverse electrochemical methods for PAR detection in different biological matrices, including serum, urine, oral fluid, and sweat.

RESULTS

The claimed benefits of chemically-modified electrodes towards the selective determination of paracetamol in such complex sample matrices are discussed. On the other hand, the possible use of unmodified carbon-based electrodes combined with flow methods is highlighted as an alternative that can find relevance in the analysis of biological fluids suspected of PAR overdose occurring in the forensic scenario. Furthermore, the details regarding the distinct techniques and working electrodes for APAP determination are presented, compared and discussed in separate sections for each biological sample (serum, urine, and oral fluid). Another aspect herein debated is the selective determination of APAP in the presence of electroactive drugs naturally found in biological samples, as uric acid, and ascorbic acid, are evaluated. In addition, we have discussed and emphasized the significance of matrix selection to ensure precise results, especially in potential overdose scenarios.

SIGNIFICANCE

This review article provides a critical discussion on the development of electroanalytical methods for biological fluids, with relevance to the fields of clinical analysis and forensics.

Voltammetric Determination of 3-Methylmorphine Using Glassy Carbon Electrode Modified with rGO and Bismuth Film

This work reports the development and application of a simple, rapid and low-cost voltammetric method for the determination of 3-methylmorphine at nanomolar levels in clinical and environmental samples. The proposed method involves the combined application of a glassy carbon electrode modified with reduced graphene oxide, chitosan and bismuth film (Bi-rGO-CTS/GCE) via square-wave voltammetry using 0.04 mol L^-1 Britton-Robinson buffer solution (pH 4.0). The application of the technique yielded low limit of detection of 24 × 10^-9 mol L^-1 and linear concentration range of 2.5 × 10^-7 to 8.2 × 10^-6 mol L^-1. The Bi-rGO-CTS/GCE sensor was successfully applied for the detection of 3-methylmorphine in the presence of other compounds, including paracetamol and caffeine. The results obtained also showed that the application of the sensor for 3-methylmorphine detection did not experience any significant interference in the presence of silicon dioxide, povidone, cellulose, magnesium stearate, urea, ascorbic acid, humic acid and croscarmellose. The applicability of the Bi-rGO-CTS/GCE sensor for the detection of 3-methylmorphine was evaluated using synthetic urine, serum, and river water samples through addition and recovery tests, and the results obtained were found to be similar to those obtained for the high-performance liquid chromatography method (HPLC)-used as a reference method. The findings of this study show that the proposed voltammetric method is a simple, fast and highly efficient alternative technique for the detection of 3-methylmorphine in both biological and environmental samples.

Advances of Drugs Electroanalysis Based on Direct Electrochemical Redox on Electrodes: A Review

The strong development of mankind is inseparable from the proper use of drugs, and the electroanalytical research of drugs occupies an important position in the field of analytical chemistry. This review mainly elaborates the research progress of drugs electroanalysis based on direct electrochemical redox on various electrodes for the recent decade from 2011 to 2021. At first, we summarize some frequently used electrochemical data processing and electrochemical mechanism research derivation methods in the literature. Then, according to the drug therapeutic and application/usage purposes, the research progress of drugs electrochemical analysis is classified and discussed, where we focus on drugs electrochemical reaction mechanism. At the same time, the comparisons of electrochemical sensing performance of the drugs on various electrodes from recent studies are listed, so that readers can more intuitively compare and understand the electroanalytical sensing performance of each modified electrode for each of the drug. Finally, this review discusses the shortcomings and prospects of the drugs electroanalysis based on direct electrochemical redox research.

Ultra-sensitive electrochemical sensing of acetaminophen and codeine in biological fluids using CuO/CuFe2O4 nanoparticles as a novel electrocatalyst

Copper ferrite–copper oxide (CuO-CuFe₂O₄) nanoparticles as a semiconductor composite with p–n junction were synthesized by co-precipitation reaction. Then, a novel CuO-CuFe₂O₄ carbon paste modified electrode was fabricated which displays an effectual electrocatalytic response to the oxidation of acetaminophen (AC) and codeine (CO). A linear range of 0.01–1.5 μmol L⁻¹ and 0.06–10.0 μmol L⁻¹ with the detection limits of 0.007 μmol L⁻¹ and 0.01 μmol L⁻¹ were achieved for AC and CO, respectively. The practical usage of the proposed sensor revealed reasonable results for quantification of AC and CO in biological fluids.

Fast determination of codeine, orphenadrine, promethazine, scopolamine, tramadol, and paracetamol in pharmaceutical formulations by capillary electrophoresis

Paracetamol is an active ingredient commonly found in pharmaceutical formulations in combination with one of the following compounds: codeine, orphenadrine, promethazine, scopolamine, and tramadol. In this work, we propose a unique analytical method for determination of these active ingredients in pharmaceutical samples. The method is based on capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection. The separation was achieved on a fused silica capillary (50 cm total length, 40 cm effective length, and 50 μm id) using an optimized background electrolyte composed of 20 mmol/L β-alanine/4 mmol/L sodium chloride/4 μmol/L sodium hydroxide (pH 9.6). Each sample can be analyzed in a single run (≤2 min) and the limits of detection were 2.5, 0.62, 0.63, 2.5, 15, and 1.6 μmol/L for scopolamine, tramadol, orphenadrine, promethazine, codeine, and paracetamol, respectively. Recovery values for spiked samples were between 94 and 104%.