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Martín-Illana A, Cazorla-Luna R, Notario-Pérez F, Rubio J, Ruiz-Caro R, Tamayo A, Veiga MD. Eudragit® L100/chitosan composite thin bilayer films for intravaginal pH-responsive release of Tenofovir. Int J Pharm 2022; 616:121554. [PMID: 35131355 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The high rate of HIV new infections and AIDS-related deaths each year make prevention tools still necessary today. Different dosage forms - including films - for vaginal administration of antiretroviral drugs have been developed for this purpose. Six batches of Tenofovir-loaded films were formulated based on Eudragit® L100 (EL100) and chitosan, containing triethyl citrate and glycerol. In all the cases films structured in two layers - the upper layer mainly attributed to EL100 and the lower layer to chitosan - were revealed by SEM. A higher content in EL100 and plasticizers improves the mechanical properties and control over drug release in the vaginal medium without affecting mucoadhesion. The EL100-based layer acts as a structuring agent that controls Tenofovir release for days in the vaginal medium while it occurs in a few hours in the presence of seminal fluid. Bilayer films with the highest tested content of EL100 and plasticizers would be the most suitable as vaginal microbicides as they are easier to administer due to their excellent mechanical properties and they offer more comfortable posology and enhanced protection against HIV during intercourse due to their pH-responsive release of Tenofovir.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Martín-Illana
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - R Cazorla-Luna
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - F Notario-Pérez
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - J Rubio
- Institute of Ceramics and Glass, Spanish National Research Council, Calle Kelsen 5, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - R Ruiz-Caro
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - A Tamayo
- Institute of Ceramics and Glass, Spanish National Research Council, Calle Kelsen 5, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - M D Veiga
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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Alshaya HA, Alfahad AJ, Alsulaihem FM, Aodah AH, Alshehri AA, Almughem FA, Alfassam HA, Aldossary AM, Halwani AA, Bukhary HA, Badr MY, Massadeh S, Alaamery M, Tawfik EA. Fast-Dissolving Nifedipine and Atorvastatin Calcium Electrospun Nanofibers as a Potential Buccal Delivery System. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14020358. [PMID: 35214093 PMCID: PMC8874982 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14020358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Geriatric patients are more likely to suffer from multiple chronic diseases that require using several drugs, which are commonly ingested. However, to enhance geriatric patients’ convenience, the electrospun nanofiber system was previously proven to be a successful alternative for the existing oral dosage forms, i.e., tablets and capsules. These nanofibers prepared either as single- or multi-layered fibers could hold at least one active compound in each layer. They might also be fabricated as ultra-disintegrated fibrous films for oral cavity administration, i.e., buccal or sublingual, to improve the bioavailability and intake of the administered drugs. Therefore, in this work, a combination of nifedipine and atorvastatin calcium, which are frequently prescribed for hypertension and hyperlipidemia patients, respectively, was prepared in a coaxial electrospinning system for buccal administration. Scanning electron microscopy image showed the successful preparation of smooth, non-beaded, and non-porous surfaces of the drug-loaded nanofibers with an average fiber diameter of 968 ± 198 nm. In contrast, transmission electron microscopy distinguished the inner and outer layers of those nanofibers. The disintegration of the drug-loaded nanofibers was ≤12 s, allowing the rapid release of nifedipine and atorvastatin calcium to 61% and 47%, respectively, after 10 min, while a complete drug release was achieved after 120 min. In vitro, a drug permeation study using Franz diffusion showed that the permeation of both drugs from the core–shell nanofibers was enhanced significantly (p < 0.05) compared to the drugs in a solution form. In conclusion, the development of drug-loaded nanofibers containing nifedipine and atorvastatin calcium can be a potential buccal delivery system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hassa A. Alshaya
- National Center of Biotechnology, Life Science and Environment Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (A.J.A.); (F.M.A.); (A.H.A.); (A.A.A.); (F.A.A.); (A.M.A.)
| | - Ahmed J. Alfahad
- National Center of Biotechnology, Life Science and Environment Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (A.J.A.); (F.M.A.); (A.H.A.); (A.A.A.); (F.A.A.); (A.M.A.)
| | - Fatemah M. Alsulaihem
- National Center of Biotechnology, Life Science and Environment Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (A.J.A.); (F.M.A.); (A.H.A.); (A.A.A.); (F.A.A.); (A.M.A.)
| | - Alhassan H. Aodah
- National Center of Biotechnology, Life Science and Environment Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (A.J.A.); (F.M.A.); (A.H.A.); (A.A.A.); (F.A.A.); (A.M.A.)
| | - Abdullah A. Alshehri
- National Center of Biotechnology, Life Science and Environment Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (A.J.A.); (F.M.A.); (A.H.A.); (A.A.A.); (F.A.A.); (A.M.A.)
| | - Fahad A. Almughem
- National Center of Biotechnology, Life Science and Environment Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (A.J.A.); (F.M.A.); (A.H.A.); (A.A.A.); (F.A.A.); (A.M.A.)
| | - Haya A. Alfassam
- KACST-BWH Centre of Excellence for Biomedicine, Joint Centers of Excellence Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (S.M.); (M.A.)
| | - Ahmad M. Aldossary
- National Center of Biotechnology, Life Science and Environment Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (A.J.A.); (F.M.A.); (A.H.A.); (A.A.A.); (F.A.A.); (A.M.A.)
| | - Abdulrahman A. Halwani
- Pharmaceutics Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 22254, Saudi Arabia;
- Regenerative Medicine Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 22254, Saudi Arabia
| | - Haitham A. Bukhary
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 24382, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.B.); (M.Y.B.)
| | - Moutaz Y. Badr
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 24382, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.B.); (M.Y.B.)
| | - Salam Massadeh
- KACST-BWH Centre of Excellence for Biomedicine, Joint Centers of Excellence Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (S.M.); (M.A.)
- Developmental Medicine Department, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, King Abdulaziz Medical City, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs (MNGHA), Riyadh 11481, Saudi Arabia
- Saudi Human Genome Satellite Laboratory at King Abdulaziz Medical City, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs (MNGHA), Riyadh 11481, Saudi Arabia
| | - Manal Alaamery
- KACST-BWH Centre of Excellence for Biomedicine, Joint Centers of Excellence Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (S.M.); (M.A.)
- Developmental Medicine Department, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, King Abdulaziz Medical City, Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs (MNGHA), Riyadh 11481, Saudi Arabia
- Saudi Human Genome Satellite Laboratory at King Abdulaziz Medical City, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs (MNGHA), Riyadh 11481, Saudi Arabia
| | - Essam A. Tawfik
- National Center of Biotechnology, Life Science and Environment Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (A.J.A.); (F.M.A.); (A.H.A.); (A.A.A.); (F.A.A.); (A.M.A.)
- KACST-BWH Centre of Excellence for Biomedicine, Joint Centers of Excellence Program, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia; (H.A.A.); (S.M.); (M.A.)
- Correspondence:
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A Novel Method for Preparation of Carrageenan/Fish Scale Collagen/Allopurinol Biocomposite Film. INT J POLYM SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.1155/2021/9960233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Biopolymers such as carrageenan or collagen can be used as carriers for loading a drug to enhance a drug’s bioavailability. In this work, allopurinol was loaded on a carrageenan/collagen blend and the carrageenan/collagen/allopurinol (CCA) biocomposite films were prepared using the ionic gelation method combined with the 3D printing method using carrageenan/collagen/allopurinol gel as a 3D printing ink material. The advantages of the 3D printing method are the ease in shaping the design of films and the ease in controlling the thickness of films. The results of infrared (IR) spectroscopy and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) analyses showed that the CCA biocomposite films have a regular structure, and the functional groups of components in the biocomposites can interact with each other. After 30 minutes of immersion in distilled water and pH buffer solution, the biocomposite films swelled and disintegrated. The carrageenan/collagen blend can control the release of allopurinol in simulated body fluids. In addition, the drug release kinetic models reflecting the release process of allopurinol from CCA biocomposite films in simulated body fluids have also been calculated.
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Biomedical application of responsive ‘smart’ electrospun nanofibers in drug delivery system: A minireview. ARAB J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2021.103199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Electrospun nanofibers of poly(vinyl alcohol) and chitosan-based emulsions functionalized with cabreuva essential oil. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 160:307-318. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.05.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Puhl DL, Funnell JL, D’Amato AR, Bao J, Zagorevski DV, Pressman Y, Morone D, Haggerty AE, Oudega M, Gilbert RJ. Aligned Fingolimod-Releasing Electrospun Fibers Increase Dorsal Root Ganglia Neurite Extension and Decrease Schwann Cell Expression of Promyelinating Factors. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:937. [PMID: 32923432 PMCID: PMC7456907 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Researchers are investigating the use of biomaterials with aligned guidance cues, like those provided by aligned electrospun fibers, to facilitate axonal growth across critical-length peripheral nerve defects. To enhance the regenerative outcomes further, these aligned fibers can be designed to provide local, sustained release of therapeutics. The drug fingolimod improved peripheral nerve regeneration in preclinical rodent models by stimulating a pro-regenerative Schwann cell phenotype and axonal growth. However, the systemic delivery of fingolimod for nerve repair can lead to adverse effects, so it is necessary to develop a means of providing sustained delivery of fingolimod local to the injury. Here we created aligned fingolimod-releasing electrospun fibers that provide directional guidance cues in combination with the local, sustained release of fingolimod to enhance neurite outgrowth and stimulate a pro-regenerative Schwann cell phenotype. Electrospun fiber scaffolds were created by blending fingolimod into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) at a w/w% (drug/polymer) of 0.0004, 0.02, or 0.04%. We examined the effectiveness of these scaffolds to stimulate neurite extension in vitro by measuring neurite outgrowth from whole and dissociated dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Subsequently, we characterized Schwann cell migration and gene expression in vitro. The results show that drug-loaded PLGA fibers released fingolimod for 28 days, which is the longest reported release of fingolimod from electrospun fibers. Furthermore, the 0.02% fingolimod-loaded fibers enhanced neurite outgrowth from whole and dissociated DRG neurons, increased Schwann cell migration, and reduced the Schwann cell expression of promyelinating factors. The in vitro findings show the potential of the aligned fingolimod-releasing electrospun fibers to enhance peripheral nerve regeneration and serve as a basis for future in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devan L. Puhl
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Jessica L. Funnell
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Anthony R. D’Amato
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Jonathan Bao
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Dmitri V. Zagorevski
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Yelena Pressman
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Daniel Morone
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
| | - Agnes E. Haggerty
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Martin Oudega
- Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL, United States
- Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences and Department of Physiology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Affiliated Cancer Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Edward Hines, Jr. VA Hospital, Hines, IL, United States
| | - Ryan J. Gilbert
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, United States
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Vass P, Démuth B, Hirsch E, Nagy B, Andersen SK, Vigh T, Verreck G, Csontos I, Nagy ZK, Marosi G. Drying technology strategies for colon-targeted oral delivery of biopharmaceuticals. J Control Release 2019; 296:162-178. [PMID: 30677436 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In chronic intestinal diseases like inflammatory bowel disease, parenteral administration of biopharmaceuticals is associated with numerous disadvantages including immune reactions, infections, low patient compliance, and toxicity caused by high systemic bioavailability. One alternative that can potentially overcome these limitations is oral administration of biopharmaceuticals, where the local delivery will reduce the systemic exposure and furthermore the manufacturing costs will be lower. However, the development of oral dosage forms that deliver the biologically active form to the intestines is one of the greatest challenges for pharmaceutical technologists due to the sensitive nature of biopharmaceuticals. The present article discusses the various drug delivery technologies used to produce orally administered solid dosage forms of biopharmaceuticals with an emphasis on colon-targeted delivery. Solid oral dosage compositions containing different types of colon-targeting biopharmaceuticals are compiled followed by a review of currently applied and emerging drying technologies for biopharmaceuticals. The different drying technologies are compared in terms of their advantages, limitations, costs and their effect on product stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panna Vass
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rakpart 3, Hungary
| | - Balázs Démuth
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rakpart 3, Hungary
| | - Edit Hirsch
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rakpart 3, Hungary
| | - Brigitta Nagy
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rakpart 3, Hungary
| | - Sune K Andersen
- Oral Solids Development, Janssen R&D, B-2340 Beerse, Turnhoutseweg 30, Belgium.
| | - Tamás Vigh
- Oral Solids Development, Janssen R&D, B-2340 Beerse, Turnhoutseweg 30, Belgium
| | - Geert Verreck
- Oral Solids Development, Janssen R&D, B-2340 Beerse, Turnhoutseweg 30, Belgium
| | - István Csontos
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rakpart 3, Hungary
| | - Zsombor K Nagy
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rakpart 3, Hungary.
| | - György Marosi
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME), H-1111 Budapest, Műegyetem rakpart 3, Hungary
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Stodolak-Zych E, Dzierzkowska E, Matwally S, Mikołajczyk M, Gajek M, Rapacz-Kmita A. Multifunctional porous membranes with antibacterial properties. INT J POLYM MATER PO 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/00914037.2018.1525719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Stodolak-Zych
- Department of Biomaterials and Composites, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Ewa Dzierzkowska
- Departments of Automatics and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatics, Computer Science and Biomedical Engineering, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Sara Matwally
- Department of Physical Metallurgy and Powder Metallurgy, Faculty of Metals Engineering and Industrial Computer Science, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Maciej Mikołajczyk
- Division of Microbiology, The University Hospital in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Marcin Gajek
- Department of Ceramics and Refractories, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Alicja Rapacz-Kmita
- Department of Ceramics and Refractories, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland
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De Mori A, Peña Fernández M, Blunn G, Tozzi G, Roldo M. 3D Printing and Electrospinning of Composite Hydrogels for Cartilage and Bone Tissue Engineering. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 10:E285. [PMID: 30966320 PMCID: PMC6414880 DOI: 10.3390/polym10030285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Injuries of bone and cartilage constitute important health issues costing the National Health Service billions of pounds annually, in the UK only. Moreover, these damages can become cause of disability and loss of function for the patients with associated social costs and diminished quality of life. The biomechanical properties of these two tissues are massively different from each other and they are not uniform within the same tissue due to the specific anatomic location and function. In this perspective, tissue engineering (TE) has emerged as a promising approach to address the complexities associated with bone and cartilage regeneration. Tissue engineering aims at developing temporary three-dimensional multicomponent constructs to promote the natural healing process. Biomaterials, such as hydrogels, are currently extensively studied for their ability to reproduce both the ideal 3D extracellular environment for tissue growth and to have adequate mechanical properties for load bearing. This review will focus on the use of two manufacturing techniques, namely electrospinning and 3D printing, that present promise in the fabrication of complex composite gels for cartilage and bone tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna De Mori
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK.
| | - Marta Peña Fernández
- Zeiss Global Centre, School of Engineering, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 3DJ, UK.
| | - Gordon Blunn
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK.
| | - Gianluca Tozzi
- Zeiss Global Centre, School of Engineering, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 3DJ, UK.
| | - Marta Roldo
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK.
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