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Balonov I, Mattis M, Jarmusch S, Koletzko B, Heinrich K, Neumann J, Werner J, Angele MK, Heiliger C, Jacob S. Metabolomic profiling of upper GI malignancies in blood and tissue: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2024; 150:331. [PMID: 38951269 PMCID: PMC11217139 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-024-05857-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control and cohort human studies evaluating metabolite markers identified using high-throughput metabolomics techniques on esophageal cancer (EC), cancer of the gastroesophageal junction (GEJ), and gastric cancer (GC) in blood and tissue. BACKGROUND Upper gastrointestinal cancers (UGC), predominantly EC, GEJ, and GC, are malignant tumour types with high morbidity and mortality rates. Numerous studies have focused on metabolomic profiling of UGC in recent years. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we have provided a collective summary of previous findings on metabolites and metabolomic profiling associated with EC, GEJ and GC. METHODS Following the PRISMA procedure, a systematic search of four databases (Embase, PubMed, MEDLINE, and Web of Science) for molecular epidemiologic studies on the metabolomic profiles of EC, GEJ and GC was conducted and registered at PROSPERO (CRD42023486631). The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) was used to benchmark the risk of bias for case-controlled and cohort studies. QUADOMICS, an adaptation of the QUADAS-2 (Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy) tool, was used to rate diagnostic accuracy studies. Original articles comparing metabolite patterns between patients with and without UGC were included. Two investigators independently completed title and abstract screening, data extraction, and quality evaluation. Meta-analysis was conducted whenever possible. We used a random effects model to investigate the association between metabolite levels and UGC. RESULTS A total of 66 original studies involving 7267 patients that met the required criteria were included for review. 169 metabolites were differentially distributed in patients with UGC compared to healthy patients among 44 GC, 9 GEJ, and 25 EC studies including metabolites involved in glycolysis, anaerobic respiration, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and lipid metabolism. Phosphatidylcholines, eicosanoids, and adenosine triphosphate were among the most frequently reported lipids and metabolites of cellular respiration, while BCAA, lysine, and asparagine were among the most commonly reported amino acids. Previously identified lipid metabolites included saturated and unsaturated free fatty acids and ketones. However, the key findings across studies have been inconsistent, possibly due to limited sample sizes and the majority being hospital-based case-control analyses lacking an independent replication group. CONCLUSION Thus far, metabolomic studies have provided new opportunities for screening, etiological factors, and biomarkers for UGC, supporting the potential of applying metabolomic profiling in early cancer diagnosis. According to the results of our meta-analysis especially BCAA and TMAO as well as certain phosphatidylcholines should be implicated into the diagnostic procedure of patients with UGC. We envision that metabolomics will significantly enhance our understanding of the carcinogenesis and progression process of UGC and may eventually facilitate precise oncological and patient-tailored management of UGC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilja Balonov
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU) Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Minca Mattis
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU) Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefanie Jarmusch
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU) Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Berthold Koletzko
- Division of Metabolic and Nutritional Medicine, Dr. Von Hauner Children's Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich Medical Center, Lindwurmstraße 4, 80337, Munich, Germany
| | - Kathrin Heinrich
- Department of Medicine III, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jens Neumann
- Institute of Pathology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU) Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jens Werner
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU) Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Martin K Angele
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU) Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Christian Heiliger
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU) Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Sven Jacob
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU) Munich, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377, Munich, Germany.
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Li X, Xu B, Yang H, Zhu Z. Gut Microbiota, Human Blood Metabolites, and Esophageal Cancer: A Mendelian Randomization Study. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:729. [PMID: 38927665 PMCID: PMC11203100 DOI: 10.3390/genes15060729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Unbalances in the gut microbiota have been proposed as a possible cause of esophageal cancer (ESCA), yet the exact causal relationship remains unclear. PURPOSE To investigate the potential causal relationship between the gut microbiota and ESCA with Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis. METHODS Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) of 207 gut microbial taxa (5 phyla, 10 classes, 13 orders, 26 families, 48 genera, and 105 species) and 205 gut microbiota metabolic pathways conducted by the Dutch Microbiome Project (DMP) and a FinnGen cohort GWAS of esophageal cancer specified the summary statistics. To investigate the possibility of a mediation effect between the gut microbiota and ESCA, mediation MR analyses were performed for 1091 blood metabolites and 309 metabolite ratios. RESULTS MR analysis indicated that the relative abundance of 10 gut microbial taxa was associated with ESCA but all the 12 gut microbiota metabolic pathways with ESCA indicated no statistically significant association existing. Two blood metabolites and a metabolite ratio were discovered to be mediating factors in the pathway from gut microbiota to ESCA. CONCLUSION This research indicated the potential mediating effects of blood metabolites and offered genetic evidence in favor of a causal correlation between gut microbiota and ESCA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuzhi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, China;
| | - Bingchen Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Department of Minimally Invasive Intervention, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, China;
| | - Han Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, China;
| | - Zhihua Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Department of Thoracic Oncology, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou 510060, China
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Gao M, Wu J, Zhou S, Chen Y, Wang M, He W, Jiang L, Shu Y, Wang X. Combining fecal microbiome and metabolomics reveals diagnostic biomarkers for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0401223. [PMID: 38497715 PMCID: PMC11064534 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.04012-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is one of the most predominant subtypes of esophageal cancer. The characteristics of the gut microbiome and its metabolites from patients with ESCC have not been adequately studied and discussed. In this study, 40 fecal samples (20 from ESCC patients and 20 from healthy controls) were analyzed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and untargeted metabolomics. The data sets were analyzed individually and synthesized using various bioinformatics methods. Alpha and beta diversity indicated significant differences in microbial diversity and abundance between ESCC and healthy control feces. At the genus level, the abundance of Phascolarctobacterium, Sutterella, and Streptococcus was significantly increased in ESCC. At the genus level, linear discriminant analysis effect size identified two biomarkers: Bacteroides_stercoris and Prevotella_copri. Untargeted metabolomics analysis revealed 307 differential metabolites between ESCC and healthy control feces, with indoles and derivatives, tropane alkaloids, lipids, and lipid-like molecules in higher relative abundance in ESCC feces than in healthy control feces. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis revealed that unsaturated fatty acids (FAs), ascorbate and aldarate metabolism, and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 signaling pathway were significantly associated with differential metabolite. Phenylethanolamine and despropionyl p-fluoro fentanyl could be used as reliable biomarkers to differentiate ESCC from healthy control. The correlation analysis showed that Prevotella may be involved in the synthesis of fatty acyl, carboxylic acids and derivatives, benzenes and substituted derivatives, organic oxygenates, and indoles and derivatives as metabolites. Fusicatenibacter and Lachnospira may be involved in the degradation of indoles and derivatives. Alistipes, Agathobacter, and Parabacteroides may be involved in the synthesis of indoles and derivatives with strong contributions. There is an intricate relationship between the gut microbiome and the levels of several metabolites (e.g., fatty acyls, carboxylic acids and derivatives, indoles, and derivatives). Microbial-associated metabolites can be used as diagnostic biomarkers in therapeutic exploration. Further analysis revealed that Prevotella, Alistipes, Agathobacter, and Parabacteroides might promote ESCC by regulating the synthesis of indoles and their derivatives. The results of this study provide favorable evidence for the early diagnosis of ESCC and subsequent individualized treatment and targeted interventions.IMPORTANCEWe describe for the first time the differences in fecal microbiome composition and metabolites between patients with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) and healthy controls by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and untargeted metabolomics. The results of this study provide a favorable basis for the early diagnosis of ESCC and subsequent targeted interventional therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jun Wu
- Clinical Medical College of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Siding Zhou
- Clinical Medical College of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | | | - Wenbo He
- Clinical Medical College of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China
| | - Lei Jiang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Northern Jiangsu People’s Hospital, Yangzhou, China
| | - Yusheng Shu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Northern Jiangsu People’s Hospital, Yangzhou, China
| | - Xiaolin Wang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Northern Jiangsu People’s Hospital, Yangzhou, China
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Sun Y, Liu W, Su M, Zhang T, Li X, Liu W, Cai Y, Zhao D, Yang M, Zhu Z, Wang J, Yu J. Purine salvage-associated metabolites as biomarkers for early diagnosis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: a diagnostic model-based study. Cell Death Discov 2024; 10:139. [PMID: 38485739 PMCID: PMC10940714 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-024-01896-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) remains an important health concern in developing countries. Patients with advanced ESCC have a poor prognosis and survival rate, and achieving early diagnosis remains a challenge. Metabolic biomarkers are gradually gaining attention as early diagnostic biomarkers. Hence, this multicenter study comprehensively evaluated metabolism dysregulation in ESCC through an integrated research strategy to identify key metabolite biomarkers of ESCC. First, the metabolic profiles were examined in tissue and serum samples from the discovery cohort (n = 162; ESCC patients, n = 81; healthy volunteers, n = 81), and ESCC tissue-induced metabolite alterations were observed in the serum. Afterward, RNA sequencing of tissue samples (n = 46) was performed, followed by an integrated analysis of metabolomics and transcriptomics. The potential biomarkers for ESCC were further identified by censoring gene-metabolite regulatory networks. The diagnostic value of the identified biomarkers was validated in a validation cohort (n = 220), and the biological function was verified. A total of 457 dysregulated metabolites were identified in the serum, of which 36 were induced by tumor tissues. The integrated analyses revealed significant alterations in the purine salvage pathway, wherein the abundance of hypoxanthine/xanthine exhibited a positive correlation with HPRT1 expression and tumor size. A diagnostic model was developed using two purine salvage-associated metabolites. This model could accurately discriminate patients with ESCC from normal individuals, with an area under the curve (AUC) (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.680-0.843) of 0.765 in the external cohort. Hypoxanthine and HPRT1 exerted a synergistic effect in terms of promoting ESCC progression. These findings are anticipated to provide valuable support in developing novel diagnostic approaches for early ESCC and enhance our comprehension of the metabolic mechanisms underlying this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yawen Sun
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China
| | - Wenjuan Liu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Research Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China
| | - Mu Su
- Berry Oncology Corporation, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China
| | - Xia Li
- Department of Public Health, Shandong Public Health Clinical Center, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250013, China
| | - Wenbin Liu
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yuping Cai
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Deli Zhao
- Tumor Preventative and Therapeutic Base of Shandong Province, Feicheng People's Hospital, Feicheng, Shandong, 271600, China
| | - Ming Yang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Research Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China
| | - Zhengjiang Zhu
- Interdisciplinary Research Center on Biology and Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Jialin Wang
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China.
| | - Jinming Yu
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China.
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Duan X, Chen Y, Zhang K, Chen W, Zhao J, Dai X, Cao W, Dong Z, Mo S, Lu J. PHGDH promotes esophageal squamous cell carcinoma progression via Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Cell Signal 2023:110736. [PMID: 37263462 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2023.110736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Esophageal squamous carcinoma (ESCC) with a high incidence in China, lacks effective therapeutic targets. Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH) is a key enzyme in serine biosynthesis. However, the biological role of PHGDH in ESCC has not been revealed. METHODS The expression of PHGDH in ESCC was investigated by UALCAN. The relationship between PHGDH expression and its prognostic value was analyzed by Kaplan-Meier and univariate Cox regression. Further, the potential functions of PHGDH involved in ESCC were explored through DAVID database and GSEA software. In addition, the expression of PHGDH was verified in ESCC. Then, the effects of PHGDH knockdown on ESCC were evaluated in vitro and in vivo by cell proliferation, clone formation, cell cycle, apoptosis, tube formation assays and ESCC cells derived xenograft model. In addition, western blotting and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the expression of Wnt/β-catenin pathway which was associated with PHGDH. RESULTS Bioinformatics analysis found that PHGDH was highly expressed in ESCC, and meaningfully, patients with high PHGDH expression had a poor prognosis. Moreover, the overexpression of PHGDH was verified in ESCC. Afterwards, PHGDH knockdown inhibited the cell proliferation, induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in ESCC cells, and inhibited the angiogenesis of HUVECs induced by ESCC conditioned medium, as well as inhibited the growth of xenograft tumor. Mechanistically, PHGDH knockdown inhibited Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in ESCC. CONCLUSION High expression of PHGDH predicts a poor prognosis for ESCC. PHGDH knockdown inhibits ESCC progression by suppressing Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, indicating that PHGDH might be a potential target for ESCC therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxuan Duan
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China
| | - Yihuan Chen
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China
| | - Kai Zhang
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China
| | - Jun Zhao
- Department of Oncology, Changzhi People's Hospital, Changzhi, Shanxi 046000, PR China
| | - Xiaoshuo Dai
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China
| | - Wenbo Cao
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Province for Cancer Chemoprevention, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450052, PR China
| | - Ziming Dong
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Province for Cancer Chemoprevention, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450052, PR China
| | - Saijun Mo
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Province for Cancer Chemoprevention, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450052, PR China.
| | - Jing Lu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China; Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Province for Cancer Chemoprevention, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450001, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Esophageal Cancer Prevention & Treatment, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province 450052, PR China.
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Fong L, Huebner K, Jing R, Smalley K, Brydges C, Fiehn O, Farber J, Croce C. Zinc treatment reverses and anti-Zn-regulated miRs suppress esophageal carcinomas in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2220334120. [PMID: 37155893 PMCID: PMC10193985 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2220334120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a deadly disease with few prevention or treatment options. ESCC development in humans and rodents is associated with Zn deficiency (ZD), inflammation, and overexpression of oncogenic microRNAs: miR-31 and miR-21. In a ZD-promoted ESCC rat model with upregulation of these miRs, systemic antimiR-31 suppresses the miR-31-EGLN3/STK40-NF-κB-controlled inflammatory pathway and ESCC. In this model, systemic delivery of Zn-regulated antimiR-31, followed by antimiR-21, restored expression of tumor-suppressor proteins targeted by these specific miRs: STK40/EGLN3 (miR-31), PDCD4 (miR-21), suppressing inflammation, promoting apoptosis, and inhibiting ESCC development. Moreover, ESCC-bearing Zn-deficient (ZD) rats receiving Zn medication showed a 47% decrease in ESCC incidence vs. Zn-untreated controls. Zn treatment eliminated ESCCs by affecting a spectrum of biological processes that included downregulation of expression of the two miRs and miR-31-controlled inflammatory pathway, stimulation of miR-21-PDCD4 axis apoptosis, and reversal of the ESCC metabolome: with decrease in putrescine, increase in glucose, accompanied by downregulation of metabolite enzymes ODC and HK2. Thus, Zn treatment or miR-31/21 silencing are effective therapeutic strategies for ESCC in this rodent model and should be examined in the human counterpart exhibiting the same biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Y. Fong
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA19107
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA19107
| | - Kay Huebner
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH43210
| | - Ruiyan Jing
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA19107
| | - Karl J. Smalley
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA19107
| | - Christopher R. Brydges
- NIH West Coast Metabolomics Center, The Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA95616
| | - Oliver Fiehn
- NIH West Coast Metabolomics Center, The Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA95616
| | - John L. Farber
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA19107
| | - Carlo M. Croce
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH43210
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Targeting Strategies for Aberrant Lipid Metabolism Reprogramming and the Immune Microenvironment in Esophageal Cancer: A Review. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2022; 2022:4257359. [PMID: 36106333 PMCID: PMC9467784 DOI: 10.1155/2022/4257359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 07/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Esophageal cancer is of high importance to occurrence, development, and treatment resistance. As evidenced by recent studies, pathways (e.g., Wnt/β-catenin, AMPK, and Hippo) are critical to the proliferation, differentiation, and self-renewal of esophageal cancer. In addition, the above pathways play a certain role in regulating esophageal cancer and act as potential therapeutic targets. Over the past few years, the function of lipid metabolism in controlling tumor cells and immune cells has aroused extensive attention. It has been reported that there are intricate interactions between lipid metabolism reprogramming between immune and esophageal cancer cells, whereas molecular mechanisms should be studied in depth. Immune cells have been commonly recognized as a vital player in the esophageal cancer microenvironment, having complex crosstalk with cancer cells. It is increasingly evidenced that the function of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) is significantly correlated with abnormal lipid metabolism. In this review, the latest findings in lipid metabolism reprogramming in TME are summarized, and the above findings are linked to esophageal cancer progression. Aberrant lipid metabolism and associated signaling pathways are likely to serve as a novel strategy to treat esophageal cancer through lipid metabolism reprogramming.
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Liu L, Wu J, Shi M, Wang F, Lu H, Liu J, Chen W, Yu G, Liu D, Yang J, Luo Q, Ni Y, Jin X, Jin X, Chen WL. New Metabolic Alterations and A Predictive Marker Pipecolic Acid in Sera for Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma. GENOMICS, PROTEOMICS & BIOINFORMATICS 2022; 20:670-687. [PMID: 35351627 PMCID: PMC9880896 DOI: 10.1016/j.gpb.2021.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is a major histological subtype of esophageal cancer with a poor prognosis. Although several serum metabolomic investigations have been reported, ESCC tumor-associated metabolic alterations and predictive biomarkers in sera have not been defined. Here, we enrolled 34 treatment-naive patients with ESCC and collected their pre- and post-esophagectomy sera together with the sera from 34 healthy volunteers for a metabolomic survey. Our comprehensive analysis identified ESCC tumor-associated metabolic alterations as represented by a panel of 12 serum metabolites. Notably, postoperative abrosia and parenteral nutrition substantially perturbed the serum metabolome. Furthermore, we performed an examination using sera from carcinogen-induced mice at the dysplasia and ESCC stages and identified three ESCC tumor-associated metabolites conserved between mice and humans. Notably, among these metabolites, the level of pipecolic acid was observed to be progressively increased in mouse sera from dysplasia to cancerization, and it could be used to accurately discriminate between mice at the dysplasia stage and healthy control mice. Furthermore, this metabolite is essential for ESCC cells to restrain oxidative stress-induced DNA damage and cell proliferation arrest. Together, this study revealed a panel of 12 ESCC tumor-associated serum metabolites with potential for monitoring therapeutic efficacy and disease relapse, presented evidence for refining parenteral nutrition composition, and highlighted serum pipecolic acid as an attractive biomarker for predicting ESCC tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Liu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226361, China
| | - Jia Wu
- Cancer Institute, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Minxin Shi
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226361, China
| | - Fengying Wang
- Cancer Institute, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Haimin Lu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226361, China
| | - Jibing Liu
- Department of Epidemiology, Tumor Institute, The Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226361, China
| | - Weiqin Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Guanzhen Yu
- Cancer Institute, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Dan Liu
- Cancer Institute, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Cancer Institute, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qin Luo
- Cancer Institute, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Yan Ni
- The Children’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - Xing Jin
- Cancer Institute, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200032, China,Corresponding authors.
| | - Xiaoxia Jin
- Department of Pathology, The Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong 226361, China,Corresponding authors.
| | - Wen-Lian Chen
- Cancer Institute, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200032, China,Corresponding authors.
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Ai Y, Wang B, Xiao S, Luo S, Wang Y. Tryptophan Side-Chain Oxidase Enzyme Suppresses Hepatocellular Carcinoma Growth through Degradation of Tryptophan. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212428. [PMID: 34830310 PMCID: PMC8623686 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Tryptophan metabolism plays a role in the occurrence and development of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. By degrading certain amino acids, tumor growth can be limited while maintaining the body’s normal nutritional requirements. Tryptophan side-chain oxidase (TSO) enzyme can degrade tryptophan, and its inhibitory effect on hepatocellular carcinoma cells is worthy of further study. To investigate the degradation effect on tryptophan, TSO was isolated and purified from qq Pseudomonas. The reaction products were identified with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). De novo sequencing provided the complete amino acid sequence of TSO. The results of CCK-8, colony formation, transwell, and qPCR confirmed that TSO had inhibitory effects on the proliferation and migration of HCCLM3 (human hepatocarcinoma cell line) and HepG2 cells. The results of flow cytometry confirmed its apoptotic activity. In animal experiments, we found that the tumor-suppressive effect was better in the oncotherapy group than the intraperitoneal injection group. The results of immunohistochemistry also suggested that TSO could inhibit proliferation and promote apoptosis. In conclusion, a specific enzyme that can degrade tryptophan and inhibit the growth of hepatoma cells was authenticated, and its basic information was obtained by extraction/purification and amino acid sequencing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Yefu Wang
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-13907185508
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10
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Zang B, Wang W, Wang Y, Li P, Xia T, Liu X, Chen D, Piao HL, Qi H, Ma Y. Metabolomic Characterization Reveals ILF2 and ILF3 Affected Metabolic Adaptions in Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:721990. [PMID: 34568427 PMCID: PMC8459612 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.721990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Esophageal cancer (EC) is a common malignant disease in eastern countries. However, a study of the metabolomic characteristics associated with other biological factors in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is limited. Interleukin enhancer binding factor 2 (ILF2) and ILF3, double-stranded RNA-binding proteins, have been reported to contribute to the occurrence and development of various types of malignancy. Nevertheless, the underlying functions of ILF2 and ILF3 in ESCC metabolic reprogramming have never been reported. This study aimed to contribute to the metabolic characterization of ESCC and to investigate the metabolomic alterations associated with ILF2 and ILF3 in ESCC tissues. Here, we identified 112 differential metabolites, which were mainly enriched in phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, fatty acid metabolism, and amino acid metabolism pathways, based on liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry and capillary electrophoresis–mass spectrometry approaches using ESCC tissues and paired para-cancer tissues from twenty-eight ESCC patients. In addition, ILF2 and ILF3 expression were significantly elevated in EC tissues compared to the histologically normal samples, and closely associated with PI3K/AKT and MAPK signaling pathways in ESCC. Moreover, in ESCC tissues with a high ILF2 expression, several short-chain acyl-carnitines (C3:0, C4:0, and C5:0) related to the BCAA metabolic pathway and long-chain acyl-carnitines (C14:0, C16:0, C16:0-OH, and C18:0) involved in the oxidation of fatty acids were obviously upregulated. Additionally, a series of intermediate metabolites involved in the glycolysis pathway, including G6P/F6P, F1,6BP, DHAP, G3P, and 2,3BPG, were remarkably downregulated in highly ILF3-expressed ESCC tissues compared with the corresponding para-cancer tissues. Overall, these findings may provide evidence for the roles of ILF2 and ILF3 during the process of ESCC metabolic alterations, and new insights into the development of early diagnosis and treatment for ESCC. Further investigation is needed to clarify the underlying mechanism of ILF2 and ILF3 on acyl-carnitines and the glycolysis pathway, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Zang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Cancer Hospital of China Medical University, Liaoning Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shenyang, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Wen Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Yiqian Wang
- Department of Radiotherapy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Pengfei Li
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Cancer Hospital of China Medical University, Liaoning Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shenyang, China
| | - Tian Xia
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Xiaolong Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Di Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Hai-Long Piao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Life Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Huan Qi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian, China
| | - Yegang Ma
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Cancer Hospital of China Medical University, Liaoning Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shenyang, China
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11
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Huang S, Guo Y, Li Z, Zhang Y, Zhou T, You W, Pan K, Li W. A systematic review of metabolomic profiling of gastric cancer and esophageal cancer. Cancer Biol Med 2021; 17:181-198. [PMID: 32296585 PMCID: PMC7142846 DOI: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2019.0348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Upper gastrointestinal (UGI) cancers, predominantly gastric cancer (GC) and esophageal cancer (EC), are malignant tumor types with high morbidity and mortality rates. Accumulating studies have focused on metabolomic profiling of UGI cancers in recent years. In this systematic review, we have provided a collective summary of previous findings on metabolites and metabolomic profiling associated with GC and EC. Methods: A systematic search of three databases (Embase, PubMed, and Web of Science) for molecular epidemiologic studies on the metabolomic profiles of GC and EC was conducted. The Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (NOS) was used to assess the quality of the included articles. Results: A total of 52 original studies were included for review. A number of metabolites were differentially distributed between GC and EC cases and non-cases, including those involved in glycolysis, anaerobic respiration, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and protein and lipid metabolism. Lactic acid, glucose, citrate, and fumaric acid were among the most frequently reported metabolites of cellular respiration while glutamine, glutamate, and valine were among the most commonly reported amino acids. The lipid metabolites identified previously included saturated and unsaturated free fatty acids, aldehydes, and ketones. However, the key findings across studies to date have been inconsistent, potentially due to limited sample sizes and the majority being hospital-based case-control analyses lacking an independent replication group. Conclusions: Studies on metabolomics have thus far provided insights into etiological factors and biomarkers for UGI cancers, supporting the potential of applying metabolomic profiling in cancer prevention and management efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sha Huang
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Yang Guo
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Zhexuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Tong Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Weicheng You
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Kaifeng Pan
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Wenqing Li
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Department of Cancer Epidemiology, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing 100142, China.,Joint International Research Center of Translational and Clinical Research, Beijing 100142, China
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12
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Ye W, Lin Y, Bezabeh T, Ma C, Liang J, Zhao J, Ouyang T, Tang W, Wu R. 1 H NMR-based metabolomics of paired esophageal tumor tissues and serum samples identifies specific serum biomarkers for esophageal cancer. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2021; 34:e4505. [PMID: 33783927 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.4505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Serum metabolites of healthy controls and esophageal cancer (EC) patients have previously been compared to predict cancer-specific profiles. However, the association between metabolic alterations in serum samples and esophageal tissues in EC patients remains unclear. Here, we analyzed 50 pairs of EC tissues and distant noncancerous tissues, together with patient-matched serum samples, using 1 H NMR spectroscopy and pattern recognition algorithms. EC patients could be differentiated from the controls based on the metabolic profiles at tissue and serum levels. Some overlapping discriminatory metabolites, including valine, alanine, glucose, acetate, citrate, succinate and glutamate, were identified in both matrices. These results suggested deregulation of metabolic pathways, and potentially revealed the links between EC and several metabolic pathways, such as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, glutaminolysis, short-chain fatty acid metabolism, lipometabolism and pyruvate metabolism. Perturbation of the pyruvate metabolism was most strongly associated with EC progression. Consequently, an optimal serum metabolite biomarker panel comprising acetate and pyruvate was developed, as these two metabolites are involved in pyruvate metabolism, and changes in their serum levels were significantly correlated with alterations in the levels of some other esophageal tissue metabolites. In comparison with individual biomarkers, this panel exhibited better diagnostic efficiency for EC, with an AUC of 0.948 in the test set, and a good predictive ability of 82.5% in the validation set. Analysis of key genes related to pyruvate metabolism in EC patients revealed patterns corresponding to the changes in serum pyruvate and acetate levels. These correlation analyses demonstrate that there were distinct metabolic characteristics and pathway aberrations in the esophageal tumor tissue and in the serum. Changes in the serum metabolic signatures could reflect the alterations in the esophageal tumor profile, thereby emphasizing the importance of distinct serum metabolic profiles as potential noninvasive biomarkers for EC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ye
- Radiology Department, Second Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Yan Lin
- Radiology Department, Second Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Tedros Bezabeh
- College of Natural & Applied Sciences, University of Guam, UOG Station, Mangilao, Guam
| | - Changchun Ma
- Radiation Oncology, Affiliated Tumor Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Jiahao Liang
- Radiology Department, Second Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Jiayun Zhao
- Radiology Department, Second Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Ting Ouyang
- Radiology Department, Second Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Wan Tang
- Radiology Department, Second Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
| | - Renhua Wu
- Radiology Department, Second Affiliated Hospital, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, China
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13
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Aftabi Y, Soleymani J, Jouyban A. Efficacy of Analytical Technologies in Metabolomics Studies of the Gastrointestinal Cancers. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2021; 52:1593-1605. [PMID: 33757389 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2021.1901646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
According to the reports of the World Health Organization and the International Agency for Research on Cancer, cancer is the second leading cause of human death worldwide. However, early-stage detection of cancers can efficiently enhance the chance of therapy and saving lives. Metabolomics strategies apply a variety of approaches to discover new potential diagnoses, prognoses, and/or therapeutic biomarkers of various diseases. Metabolomics aims to identify and measure different low-molecular-weight biomolecules in physiological environments. In these studies, special metabolites are extracted from biological samples and identified using analytical techniques. Afterward, using data processing programs discovering significantly associated biomarkers is pursued. In the present review, we aimed to discuss recently reported analytical approaches on the metabolomics studies of gastrointestinal cancers including gastric, colorectal, and esophageal cancers. The gas- and liquid-chromatography with different detectors have been shown that are the main analytical techniques and for metabolites quantification, nuclear magnetic resonance has been utilized as a master method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Younes Aftabi
- Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Jafar Soleymani
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Research Center and Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Liver and Gastrointestinal Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Abolghasem Jouyban
- Pharmaceutical Analysis Research Center and Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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14
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Ren Z, Rajani C, Jia W. The Distinctive Serum Metabolomes of Gastric, Esophageal and Colorectal Cancers. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13040720. [PMID: 33578739 PMCID: PMC7916516 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13040720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cancer of the stomach, esophagus and colon are often fatal. Ways are being sought to establish patient-friendly screening tests that would allow these cancers to be detected earlier. Examination of the metabolomics results of cancer patient’s serum for certain metabolites unique for a particular cancer was the goal of this review. From studies conducted within the past five years several metabolites were found to be changed in cancer compared to non-cancer patients for each of the three cancers. Further confirmation of what was discovered in this review coupled with establishment of standard protocols may allow for cancer screening on patient blood samples to become routine clinical tests. Abstract Three of the most lethal cancers in the world are the gastrointestinal cancers—gastric (GC), esophageal (EC) and colorectal cancer (CRC)—which are ranked as third, sixth and fourth in cancer deaths globally. Early detection of these cancers is difficult, and a quest is currently on to find non-invasive screening tests to detect these cancers. The reprogramming of energy metabolism is a hallmark of cancer, notably, an increased dependence on aerobic glycolysis which is often referred to as the Warburg effect. This metabolic change results in a unique metabolic profile that distinguishes cancer cells from normal cells. Serum metabolomics analyses allow one to measure the end products of both host and microbiota metabolism present at the time of sample collection. It is a non-invasive procedure requiring only blood collection which encourages greater patient compliance to have more frequent screenings for cancer. In the following review we will examine some of the most current serum metabolomics studies in order to compare their results and test a hypothesis that different tumors, notably, from EC, GC and CRC, have distinguishing serum metabolite profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenxing Ren
- Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Diabetes Mellitus, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China;
| | - Cynthia Rajani
- Cancer Biology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
- Correspondence: (C.R.); or (W.J.)
| | - Wei Jia
- Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Diabetes Mellitus, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China;
- Cancer Biology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA
- School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, China
- Correspondence: (C.R.); or (W.J.)
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15
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Kumari S, Ali A, Roome T, Razzak A, Iqbal A, Jabbar Siddiqui A, Muhammad Zahid Azam S, Shaikh H, El-Seedi HR, Musharraf SG. Metabolomics approach to understand the hepatitis C virus induced hepatocellular carcinoma using LC-ESI-MS/MS. ARAB J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2020.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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16
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Dong G, Huang X, Jiang S, Ni L, Ma L, Zhu C, Chen S. SCAP Mediated GDF15-Induced Invasion and EMT of Esophageal Cancer. Front Oncol 2020; 10:564785. [PMID: 33123476 PMCID: PMC7573169 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.564785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: GDF15 is a potential biomarker for patients with esophageal cancer (EC). However, the mechanistic role of GDF15 in the invasion and metastasis of EC remains poorly understood. Methods: We determined the expression and function of GDF15 in esophageal cancer cells (ESCCs) and in patient tissue samples using western blotting, migration, and invasion assays, immunohistochemistry, Co-IP assays, and quantitative real-time-PCR. In addition, a pulmonary metastatic nude mouse model was used to determine the function of GDF15. We then supplemented our experimental results with database analysis to validate our findings. Results: GDF15 was upregulated in EC, and was associated with poor differentiation, high metastasis rates, and worse prognosis. GDF15 knock-down reduced the migration and invasion of ESCCs. Co-IP assays demonstrated its association with SCAP, while GDF15 knock-down decreased SCAP levels. SCAP overexpression reversed the migration, invasion and EMT in GDF15-siRNA ESCCs. However, after incubation with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD), the ability of migration and invasion was weakened, EMT was reversed again. Migration, invasion, and EMT were enhanced in GDF15-siRNA ESCCs cultured in the presence of cholesterol and were similar to GDF15-siRNA ESCCs overexpressing SCAP. In vivo, knockdown of GDF15 inhibited lung metastasis of ESCCs and was reversed by SCAP overexpression or high cholesterol diet. Increased lung metastasis after SCAP overexpression was partially suppressed by intraperitoneal injection of β-CD. In addition, we determined that GDF15 was a direct target of miR-1324, miR-1324 was down-regulated in EC tissues. MiR-1324 upregulation resulted in decreased GDF15 expression and metastasis in ESCCs. Conclusions: We demonstrated that SCAP mediated GDF15-induced the invasion and metastasis of EC by regulating cholesterol metabolism. In addition, GDF15 was shown to be a direct target of miR-1324.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Dong
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoquan Huang
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Siyu Jiang
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Liyuan Ni
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lili Ma
- Endoscopy Center and Endoscopy Research Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chouwen Zhu
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Center of Evidence-Based Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shiyao Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Endoscopy Center and Endoscopy Research Institute, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.,Center of Evidence-Based Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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17
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Zhang S, Lu X, Hu C, Li Y, Yang H, Yan H, Fan J, Xu G, Abnet CC, Qiao Y. Serum Metabolomics for Biomarker Screening of Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Esophageal Squamous Dysplasia Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:26402-26412. [PMID: 33110968 PMCID: PMC7581083 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c02600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is one of the most common malignancies with poor diagnosis. Esophageal squamous dysplasia (ESD) is considered as an immediate precancerous lesion of ESCC. Lack of biomarkers for discriminating ESCC and ESD from healthy subjects limits the early diagnosis and treatment of ESCC. Therefore, a serum metabolomic strategy was conducted to identify and validate potential metabolic markers for the screening of ESCC and ESD subjects. METHODS A total of 74 patients with ESCC, 72 patients with ESD, and 75 normal control (NC) subjects were enrolled in this study. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to acquire serum metabolic profiles. Pathway analysis was conducted to uncover the fluctuated metabolic pathways during ESCC. Multivariate analyses were used to screen and validate the biomarkers. RESULTS ESCC, ESD, and NC subjects revealed progressively altered metabolic profiles, in which amino acids globally increased, while fatty acids decreased in ESCCs compared with the control groups. Pathway analysis demonstrated the activated biosynthesis of amino acids and inhibited desaturation of saturated fatty acids. The panel constructed with propanoic acid, linoleic acid, glycerol-3-phosphate, and l-glutamine showed the area under the curve (AUC), sensitivity, and specificity of 0.817, 0.75, and 0.74, respectively, in the discrimination of ESCC/ESD patients from NC subjects. The panel constructed by propanoic acid, l-leucine, and hydroxyproline revealed the AUC, sensitivity, and specificity of 0.819, 0.76, and 0.72, respectively, in the discrimination of ESD from NC subjects. The combination of hypoxanthine, 2-ketoisocaproic acid, l-glutamate, and l-aspartate showed the AUC, sensitivity, and specificity of 0.818, 0.83, and 0.74, respectively, in the discrimination of ESCC patients from ESD subjects. CONCLUSIONS Our study revealed the systematic landscape for metabolic alterations in sera of ESD and ESCC patients. The defined metabolite markers showed reasonable performance in the discrimination of ESCC and ESD patients, and may provide helpful reference for clinicians and biologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Zhang
- Department
of Cancer Epidemiology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research
Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese
Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, 17 South Panjiayuan Lane, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Xin Lu
- CAS
Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian
Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Chunxiu Hu
- CAS
Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian
Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Yanli Li
- CAS
Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian
Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Huan Yang
- Department
of Cancer Epidemiology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research
Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese
Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, 17 South Panjiayuan Lane, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Huijiao Yan
- Department
of Cancer Epidemiology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research
Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese
Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, 17 South Panjiayuan Lane, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Jinhu Fan
- Department
of Cancer Epidemiology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research
Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese
Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, 17 South Panjiayuan Lane, Beijing 100021, China
- . Tel: 010-87787423
| | - Guowang Xu
- CAS
Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian
Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Dalian 116023, China
- . Tel/Fax: 0086-422-84379530
| | - Christian C. Abnet
- Division
of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Youlin Qiao
- Department
of Cancer Epidemiology, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research
Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese
Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, 17 South Panjiayuan Lane, Beijing 100021, China
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18
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Li H, Zhang C, Zhang M, Yao Q, Yang H, Fan L, Zheng N. Angustoline Inhibited Esophageal Tumors Through Regulating LKB1/AMPK/ELAVL1/LPACT2 Pathway and Phospholipid Remodeling. Front Oncol 2020; 10:1094. [PMID: 32733803 PMCID: PMC7358378 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.01094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Esophageal cancer is a type of gastrointestinal carcinoma and is among the 10 most common causes of cancer death worldwide. However, the specific mechanism and the biomarkers in the proliferation and metastasis of esophageal tumors are still unclear. Therefore, the development of several natural products which could inhibit esophageal tumors deserve attention. In the present study, different sources of cancer cells were used to select the sensitive cell line (esophageal cancer cell KYSE450) and the proper dose of angustoline, which were utilized in the following cell viability, migration and invasion assays. Then the lipidomic detection of clinical samples (tissue and blood plasma) from esophageal cancer patients was performed, to screen out the specific phospholipid metabolites [PC (16:0/18:1) and LPC (16:0)]. Considering lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 2 (LPCAT2) was tightly relative with phospholipids conversion, serine/threonine-protein kinase 11 (LKB1), 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and embryonic lethal, and abnormal vision, drosophila-like 1 (ELAVL1) were investigated, to evaluate their expression levels in esophageal tumor tissue and KYSE450 cells. Additionally, KYSE450 tumor bearing mouse model was constructed, the role of angustoline in inhibiting esophageal tumors through regulating LKB1/AMPK/ELAVL1/LPCAT2 pathway was validated, and found that the conversion from LPC (16:0) to PC (16:0/18:1) was blocked by angustoline in some degree. The above results for the first time proved that angustoline suppressed esophageal tumors through activating LKB1/AMPK and inhibiting ELAVL1/LPCAT2, which consequently blocked phospholipid remodeling from LPC (16:0) to PC (16:0/18:1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiying Li
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Min Zhang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qianqian Yao
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Huaigu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Linlin Fan
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Quality and Safety Control for Milk and Dairy Products of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
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Fong LY, Taccioli C, Palamarchuk A, Tagliazucchi GM, Jing R, Smalley KJ, Fan S, Altemus J, Fiehn O, Huebner K, Farber JL, Croce CM. Abrogation of esophageal carcinoma development in miR-31 knockout rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:6075-6085. [PMID: 32123074 PMCID: PMC7084137 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1920333117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
MicroRNA-31 (miR-31) is overexpressed in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), a deadly disease associated with dietary Zn deficiency and inflammation. In a Zn deficiency-promoted rat ESCC model with miR-31 up-regulation, cancer-associated inflammation, and a high ESCC burden following N-nitrosomethylbenzylamine (NMBA) exposure, systemic antimiR-31 delivery reduced ESCC incidence from 85 to 45% (P = 0.038) and miR-31 gene knockout abrogated development of ESCC (P = 1 × 10-6). Transcriptomics, genome sequencing, and metabolomics analyses in these Zn-deficient rats revealed the molecular basis of ESCC abrogation by miR-31 knockout. Our identification of EGLN3, a known negative regulator of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), as a direct target of miR-31 establishes a functional link between oncomiR-31, tumor suppressor target EGLN3, and up-regulated NF-κB-controlled inflammation signaling. Interaction among oncogenic miR-31, EGLN3 down-regulation, and inflammation was also documented in human ESCCs. miR-31 deletion resulted in suppression of miR-31-associated EGLN3/NF-κB-controlled inflammatory pathways. ESCC-free, Zn-deficient miR-31-/- rat esophagus displayed no genome instability and limited metabolic activity changes vs. the pronounced mutational burden and ESCC-associated metabolic changes of Zn-deficient wild-type rats. These results provide conclusive evidence that miR-31 expression is necessary for ESCC development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Y Fong
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107;
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Cristian Taccioli
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health, University of Padova, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Alexey Palamarchuk
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | | | - Ruiyan Jing
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Karl J Smalley
- Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Sili Fan
- NIH West Coast Metabolomics Center, UC Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Joseph Altemus
- Office of Animal Resources, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Oliver Fiehn
- NIH West Coast Metabolomics Center, UC Davis Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Kay Huebner
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - John L Farber
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107
| | - Carlo M Croce
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210;
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20
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Yu J, Zhao J, Zhang M, Guo J, Liu X, Liu L. Metabolomics studies in gastrointestinal cancer: a systematic review. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020; 14:9-25. [PMID: 31786962 DOI: 10.1080/17474124.2020.1700112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: This systemic review provides an overview of metabolic perturbations and possible mechanisms in gastrointestinal cancer. The authors discuss emerging challenges of technical and clinical applications.Areas covered: In this systemic review, the authors summarized the currently available results of metabolomic biomarkers linked to GI cancer, and discussed the altered metabolism pathways including carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism, lipids, and nucleotide metabolism and other metabolisms. Furthermore, future efforts need to adhere to normalize analysis procedures, validate with the larger cohort and utilize multiple-omics technologies. The search was conducted in PubMed with the following search terms (biomarker, gastrointestinal cancer, colorectal cancer, and esophageal cancer) from 2013 to 2019.Expert opinion: This systemic review summarized the currently available results of metabolomic biomarkers linked to gastrointestinal cancer, and discussed the altered metabolism pathways. The authors believe that metabolomics will benefit deeper understandings of the pathogenic mechanism, discovery of biomarkers and aid the search for drug targets as we move toward the era of personalized medicine. Personalized medication for tumors can improve the curative effect, avoid side effects and medical resource waste. As a promisingtool, metabolomics that targets the entire cancer-specific metabolite network should be applied more widely in cancer research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaying Yu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Jinhui Zhao
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Mingjia Zhang
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Jing Guo
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Xiaowei Liu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Liyan Liu
- Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Public Health College, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, P. R. China
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21
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Miller J, Alshehri A, Ramage MI, Stephens NA, Mullen AB, Boyd M, Ross JA, Wigmore SJ, Watson DG, Skipworth RJE. Plasma Metabolomics Identifies Lipid and Amino Acid Markers of Weight Loss in Patients with Upper Gastrointestinal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11101594. [PMID: 31635032 PMCID: PMC6826420 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11101594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cachexia is a multifactorial wasting syndrome associated with high morbidity and mortality in patients with cancer. Diagnosis can be difficult and, in the clinical situation, usually relies upon reported weight loss. The ‘omics’ technologies allow us the opportunity to study the end points of many biological processes. Among these, blood-based metabolomics is a promising method to investigate the pathophysiology of human cancer cachexia and identify candidate biomarkers. In this study, we performed liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS)-based metabolomics to investigate the metabolic profile of cancer-associated weight loss. Non-selected patients undergoing surgery with curative intent for upper gastrointestinal cancer were recruited. Fasting plasma samples were taken at induction of anaesthesia. LC/MS analysis showed that 6 metabolites were highly discriminative of weight loss. Specifically, a combination profile of LysoPC 18.2, L-Proline, Hexadecanoic acid, Octadecanoic acid, Phenylalanine and LysoPC 16:1 showed close correlation for eight weight-losing samples (≥5% weight loss) and nine weight-stable samples (<5%weight loss) between predicted and actual weight change (r = 0.976, p = 0.0014). Overall, 40 metabolites were associated with ≥5% weight loss. This study provides biological validation of the consensus definition of cancer cachexia (Fearon et al.) and provides feasible candidate markers for further investigation in early diagnosis and the assessment of therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janice Miller
- Clinical Surgery, University of Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SA, UK.
| | - Ahmed Alshehri
- The Royal Liverpool University Hospital, Prescot Street, Liverpool L7 8XP, UK.
| | - Michael I Ramage
- Clinical Surgery, University of Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SA, UK.
| | - Nathan A Stephens
- The Royal Liverpool University Hospital, Prescot Street, Liverpool L7 8XP, UK.
| | - Alexander B Mullen
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XQ, UK.
| | - Marie Boyd
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XQ, UK.
| | - James A Ross
- Clinical Surgery, University of Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SA, UK.
| | - Stephen J Wigmore
- Clinical Surgery, University of Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SA, UK.
| | - David G Watson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XQ, UK.
| | - Richard J E Skipworth
- Clinical Surgery, University of Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SA, UK.
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