Pesticide Residues in Honey from the Major Honey Producing Forest Belts in Ghana

Human exposure to endocrine-disrupting organochlorine and organophosphate pesticides in locally produced and imported honey in Nigeria

The practice of exposing honeybees to pesticides by bee-keepers or via agricultural crops, is one of the ways in which honey becomes contaminated with pesticides. Though honey has many health advantages, however, human exposure to pesticides via consumption of honey has generated public health concerns due to their endocrine-disruptive abilities. Thus, this study evaluated human exposure to endocrine-disrupting pesticides in honey from Nigeria to establish the safety of honey consumed in Nigeria. Honey were analyzed for pesticides using a gas chromatograph combined with an electron capture detector. The concentrations of ∑20 OCPs and ∑14 OPPs in the honey ranged from 0.45-1045 ng/g and 1.13-632 ng/g respectively. The values of both individual and cumulative non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks for humans were <1 and 1 × 10-4 respectively suggesting that there are no potential health risks via the honey consumption. The source analysis showed that pesticides in these honey originated from historical and recent/fresh use.

Redox mechanisms of environmental toxicants on male reproductive function

Humans and wildlife, including domesticated animals, are exposed to a myriad of environmental contaminants that are derived from various human activities, including agricultural, household, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and industrial products. Excessive exposure to pesticides, heavy metals, and phthalates consequently causes the overproduction of reactive oxygen species. The equilibrium between reactive oxygen species and the antioxidant system is preserved to maintain cellular redox homeostasis. Mitochondria play a key role in cellular function and cell survival. Mitochondria are vulnerable to damage that can be provoked by environmental exposures. Once the mitochondrial metabolism is damaged, it interferes with energy metabolism and eventually causes the overproduction of free radicals. Furthermore, it also perceives inflammation signals to generate an inflammatory response, which is involved in pathophysiological mechanisms. A depleted antioxidant system provokes oxidative stress that triggers inflammation and regulates epigenetic function and apoptotic events. Apart from that, these chemicals influence steroidogenesis, deteriorate sperm quality, and damage male reproductive organs. It is strongly believed that redox signaling molecules are the key regulators that mediate reproductive toxicity. This review article aims to spotlight the redox toxicology of environmental chemicals on male reproduction function and its fertility prognosis. Furthermore, we shed light on the influence of redox signaling and metabolism in modulating the response of environmental toxins to reproductive function. Additionally, we emphasize the supporting evidence from diverse cellular and animal studies.

Risk assessment of honeybee larvae exposure to pyrethroid insecticides in beebread and honey

Honeybee is an essential pollinator to crops, evaluation to the risk assessment of honeybee larvae exposure to pesticides residue in the bee bread and honey is an important strategy to protect the bee colony due to the mixture of these two matrices is main food for 3-day-old honeybee larvae. In this study, a continuous survey to the residue of five pyrethroid insecticides in bee bread and honey between 2018 and 2020 from 17 major cultivation provinces which can be determined as Northeast, Northwest, Eastern, Central, Southwest, and Southern of China, there was at least one type II pyrethroid insecticide was detected in 54.7 % of the bee bread samples and 43.4 % of the honey. Then, we assayed the acute toxicity of type II pyrethroid insecticides based on the detection results, the LD50 value was 0.2201 μg/larva (beta-cyhalothrin), 0.4507 μg/larva (bifenthrin), 2.0840 μg/larva (fenvalerate), 0.0530 μg/larva (deltamethrin), and 0.1640 μg/larva (beta-cypermethrin), respectively. Finally, the hazard quotient was calculated as larval oral ranged from 0.046 × 10-3 to 2.128 × 10-3. Together, these empirical findings provide further insight into the accurate contamination of honey bee colonies caused by chemical pesticides, which can be used as a valuable guidance for the beekeeping industry and pesticide regulation.

Honey contamination from plant protection products approved for cocoa (Theobroma cacao) cultivation: A systematic review of existing research and methods

The main component of chocolate, cocoa (Theobroma cacao), is a significant commercial agricultural plant that directly sustains the livelihoods of an estimated forty to fifty million people. The economies of many cocoa producing nations, particularly those in the developing world, are supported by cocoa export revenue. To ensure satisfactory yields, however, the plant is usually intensely treated with pesticides because it is vulnerable to disease and pest attacks. Even though pesticides help protect the cocoa plant, unintended environmental contamination is also likely. Honey, produced from nectar obtained by honeybees from flowers while foraging, can serve as a good indicator for the level of pesticide residues and environmental pesticide build-up in landscapes. Here, we use a systematic literature review to quantify the extent of research on residues of pesticides used in cocoa cultivation in honey. In 81% of the 104 studies examined for this analysis, 169 distinct compounds were detected. Imidacloprid was the most frequently detected pesticide, making neonicotinoids the most frequently found class of pesticides overall. However, in cocoa producing countries, organophosphates, organochlorines, and pyrethroids were the most frequently detected pesticides. Interestingly, only 19% of studies were carried out in cocoa producing countries. We recommend prioritizing more research in the countries that produce cocoa to help to understand the potential impact of pesticide residues linked with cocoa cultivation in honey and the environment more generally to inform better pesticide usage, human health, and environmental policies.

Exposure to pesticide residues in honey and its potential cancer risk assessment

Honey is the most recognized natural food by-product derived from flower nectar and the upper aero-digestive tract of the honeybees. Significance of honey for its medicinal importance are well-documented in the world's oldest medical literatures. However, the current urbanization, environmental contaminations and changes in agricultural, as well as apiculture practices has led to various types of contaminations in honey. Among all, pesticide contamination has become one of the major issues worldwide. This review focuses on the recent updates concerning pesticides occurrence in honey, as well as how the repeated use and long-term exposure to honey contaminated with pesticide residues could affect the human physiological functions, possibly leading to the development of various cancers. Our findings suggests that uncontrolled use of pesticides in farming and apiculture practices leads to the occurrence of pesticides residues in honey. Therefore, regular consumption of such honey will pose a serious threat to human health, since most of the pesticides has been reported as potential carcinogens. This review will draw the attention of honey consumers, scientific communities, apiculture farmers, as well as governing bodies to strictly monitor the pesticide usage in floriculture, agriculture as well as other related practices.

Pesticides in honey: bibliographic and bibliometric analysis towards matrix quality for consumption

Abstract Honey is a matrix noted for its wide consumption as a sweetener and its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties; however, its physicochemical quality can be compromised by the presence of toxicants such as pesticides. This review aims to gather recent information on pesticides in honey from the approach to their detection, understanding, and adverse effects on human health. A bibliographic and bibliometric analysis was carried out in academic databases limited to the last five and thirty years, respectively, comprising the keywords “honey”, “pesticides” and their types of pesticides or the agrochemical compound directly. It was found that there are about 30 pesticides detected in honey, in which organochlorine, organophosphate, and neonicotinoid compounds stood out for their concentrations concerning Maximum Residue Levels (MRL). Their physicochemical alteration was not well explored beyond slight variations in brightness and manganese concentration, and its consumption may have repercussions on human reproductive health. It was also determined that there was limited development on the scientific subject seeing that it is important to explore and investigate more on the issue due to the great impact of honey as a product of high consumption at a global level.

Binding and Detoxification of Insecticides by Potentially Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) Environment-An In Vitro Study

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) naturally inhabiting the digestive tract of honeybees are known for their ability to detoxify xenobiotics. The effect of chlorpyrifos, coumaphos, and imidacloprid on the growth of LAB strains was tested. All strains showed high resistance to these insecticides. Subsequently, the insecticide binding ability of LAB was investigated. Coumaphos and chlorpyrifos were bound to the greatest extent (up to approx. 64%), and imidacloprid to a much weaker extent (up to approx. 36%). The insecticides were detected in extra- and intracellular extracts of the bacterial cell wall. The ability of selected LAB to reduce the cyto- and genotoxicity of insecticides was tested on two normal (ovarian insect Sf-9 and rat intestinal IEC-6) cell lines and one cancer (human intestinal Caco-2) cell line. All strains exhibited various levels of reduction in the cyto- and genotoxicity of tested insecticides. It seems that coumaphos was detoxified most potently. The detoxification abilities depended on the insecticide, LAB strain, and cell line. The detoxification of insecticides in the organisms of honeybees may reduce the likelihood of the penetration of these toxins into honeybee products consumed by humans and may contribute to the improvement of the condition in apiaries and honeybee health.

Honey as a bioindicator of environmental organochlorine insecticides contamination

Honey is a suitable matrix for the evaluation of environmental contaminants including organochlorine insecticides. The present study was conducted to evaluate residues of fifteen organochlorine insecticides in honey samples of unifloral and multifloral origins from Dir, Pakistan. Honey samples (5 g each) were extracted with GC grade organic solvents and then subjected to Rotary Evaporator till dryness. The extracts were then mixed with n-Hexane (5 ml) and purified through Column Chromatography. Purified extracts (1μl each) were processed through Gas Chromatograph coupled with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD) for identification and quantification of the insecticides. Of the 15 insecticides tested, 46.7% were detected while 53.3% were not detected in the honey samples. Heptachlor was the most prevalent insecticide with a mean level of 0.0018 mg/kg detected in 80% of the samples followed by β-HCH with a mean level of 0.0016 mg/kg detected in 71.4% of the honey samples. Honey samples from Acacia modesta Wall. were 100% positive for Heptachlor with a mean level of 0.0048 mg/kg followed by β-HCH with a mean level of 0.003 mg/kg and frequency of 83.3%. Minimum levels of the tested insecticides were detected in the unifloral honey from Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Methoxychlor, Endosulfan, Endrin and metabolites of DDT were not detected in the studied honey samples. Some of the tested insecticides are banned in Pakistan but are still detected in honey samples indicating their use in the study area. The detected levels of all insecticides were below the Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) and safe for consumers. However, the levels detected can cause mortality in insect fauna. The use of banned insecticides is one of the main factors responsible for the declining populations of important insect pollinators including honeybees.

Cardiotoxicity of some pesticides and their amelioration

Pesticides are used to control pests that harm plants, animals, and humans. Their application results in the contamination of the food and water systems. Pesticides may cause harm to the human body via occupational exposure or the ingestion of contaminated food and water. Once a pesticide enters the human body, it may create health consequences such as cardiotoxicity. There is not enough information about pesticides that cause cardiotoxicity in the literature. Currently, there are few reports that summarized the cardiotoxicity due to some pesticide groups. This necessitates reviewing the current literature regarding pesticides and cardiotoxicity and to summarize them in a concrete review. The objectives of this review article were to summarize the advances in research related to pesticides and cardiotoxicity, to classify pesticides into certain groups according to cardiotoxicity, to discuss the possible mechanisms of cardiotoxicity, and to present the agents that ameliorate cardiotoxicity. Approximately 60 pesticides were involved in cardiotoxicity: 30, 13, and 17 were insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, respectively. The interesting outcome of this study is that 30 and 13 pesticides from toxicity classes II and III, respectively, are involved in cardiotoxicity. The use of standard antidotes for pesticide poisoning shows health consequences among users. Alternative safe medical management is the use of cardiotoxicity-ameliorating agents. This review identifies 24 ameliorating agents that were successfully used to manage 60 cases. The most effective agents were vitamin C, curcumin, vitamin E, quercetin, selenium, chrysin, and garlic extract. Vitamin C showed ameliorating effects in a wide range of toxicities. The exposure mode to pesticide residues, where 1, 2, 3, and 4 are aerial exposure to pesticide drift, home and/or office exposure, exposure due to drinking contaminated water, and consumption of contaminated food, respectively. General cardiotoxicity is represented by 5, whereas 6, 7, 8 and 9 are electrocardiogram (ECG) of hypotension due to exposure to OP residues, ECG of myocardial infraction due to exposure to OPs, ECG of hypertension due to exposure to OC and/or PY, and normal ECG respectively.

The Influence of Chemical Contaminants on the Physicochemical Properties of Unifloral and Multifloral Honey

The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the effect of antibiotic and pesticide residues on the physicochemical properties of unifloral and multifloral honey. The mineral elements content of honey was analyzed and correlated with antibiotic and pesticide residues, and a positive correlation was found between manganese and neonicotinoids. Potassium was found to be the most abundant mineral compound. Correlations were found between mineral content, color, and the content of antibiotic and pesticide residues of honey. In meadow honey, residues of antibiotics and pesticides were undetectable. In some of the other types of honey, the maximum residue limits regulated by European legislation were exceeded. Endosulfan residue was found in mint and rapeseed, honey with 0.42 and 5.14 ng/g, respectively. Neonicotinoids were found in 27% of the analyzed honey samples. Chloramphenicol was identified only in rapeseed honey, with concentrations ranging from 0.2 ng/g to 0.8 ng/g. Nitrofurans were found in 14%, and nitroimidazoles were found in 6% of the analyzed samples. According to EU legislation that is in force, the use of antibiotics in beekeeping is not allowed. The MRLs for neonicotinoids are 50 ng/g, and for coumaphos, the maximum limit is 100 ng/g. For the other pesticide residues, the maximum limit is 10 ng/g. The results of statistical analysis obtained using principal component analysis (PCA) showed a major difference in the levels of contamination of raspberry and meadow honey and the other types of honey.

Organochlorine pesticide residues in Uganda's honey as a bioindicator of environmental contamination and reproductive health implications to consumers

Honey has multifaceted nutritional and medicinal values; however, its quality is hinged on the floral origin of the nectar. Taking advantage of the large areas that they cover; honeybees are often used as bioindicators of environmental contamination. The focus of the present paper was to examine the quality of honey from within the vicinity of an abandoned pesticide store in Masindi District in western Uganda. Surficial soils (<20 cm depths) and honey samples were collected from within the vicinity of the abandoned pesticide store and analysed for organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues using gas chromatograph coupled to an electron capture detector (GC-ECD). The mean level of ∑DDTs in all the soil samples was 503.6 µg/kg dry weight (d.w). ∑DDTs contributed 92.2% to the ∑OCPs contamination loads in the soil samples, and others (lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, and endosulfans) contributed only 7.8%. Ratio (p, p'-DDE+p, p'-DDD)/p, p'-DDT of 1.54 suggested historical DDT input in the area. In all the honey samples, the mean level of ∑DDTs was 20.9 µg/kg. ∑DDTs contributed 43.3% to ∑OCPs contamination loads in the honey samples, followed by lindane (29.8%), endosulfans (23.6%) and dieldrin (3.2%), with corresponding mean levels of 14.4, 11.4 and 1.55 µg/kg, respectively. Reproductive risk assessment was done based on the hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) procedure. In our study, the calculated HIs for adults (102.38), and children (90.33) suggested high potential health risks to the honey consumers. Lindane, endosulfan and p, p'-DDD detected in the honey samples at levels exceeding the acute reference dose (ARfD) are known risk factors for spontaneous abortion, reduced implantation, menstrual cycle shortening, impaired semen quality, and prostate cancer in exposed individuals and experimental animal models.

Determination of DDT in honey samples by liquid-liquid extraction with low-temperature purification (LLE-LTP) combined to HPLC-DAD

Honey is widely consumed worldwide, however, this food can be contaminated by chemical contaminants, such as the insecticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Despite legal restrictions on DDT use, this organochlorine pesticide has been detected in honey collected in several developed and developing countries, representing risks to human health, animals, and the environment due to its high environmental persistence, potential carcinogenicity, and ecotoxicological effects. Thus, the development of an analytical method for DDT monitoring in this matrix is important to ensure food security. Therefore, this study aimed to optimize and validate a simple, low-cost, and efficient method using the liquid-liquid extraction with low-temperature purification (LLE-LTP) to determine DDT in honey samples by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD). The proposed method was validated according to SANTE guidelines, being considered selective, precise, accurate, and linear in the range of 8.0-160 μg kg^-1. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) achieved were 4.0 and 8.0 μg kg^-1, respectively. This LOQ value is lower than the maximum residue limit established by the Brazilian and European Union legislation. Therefore, the LLE-LTP combined to HPLC-DAD allows the routine analysis of DDT in honey samples and can be widely applied in studies to monitor this pesticide, especially in developing countries, where DDT use is still allowed.

Overcoming matrix effects in the analysis of pyrethroids in honey by a fully automated direct immersion solid-phase microextraction method using a matrix-compatible fiber

Pyrethroids insecticides may constitute a major hazard to honeybees, leading to colony collapse disorder. However, the determination of pyrethroids in honey has remained a challenging undertaking for analysts to date due to the high complexity of this matrix as well as the MRLs. This paper presents a fully automated method to overcome matrix influences using matrix-compatible overcoated SPME fiber for quantitative analysis of pyrethroids in diluted honey by GC-MS. The developed method was optimized using a multivariate approach providing LOQ values much lower than the stablished MRL (0.10-10 ng/g), while granting satisfactory linearity (R² > 0.998) in a wide linear range of 0.1-2000 ng/g, repeatability with RSDs < 10%, reproducibility RSDs < 20%, and accuracy ranging from 75 to 118% and from 82 to 120 % for inter-day and intra-day assays, respectively by using five replicates. The method herein proposed overcomes challenges presented by complex matrices while minimizing sample handling and the overall complexity of the procedure.

Pesticide residues in honey and their potential reproductive toxicity

Honey is the sweet natural substance produced by honeybees. It may be contaminated with pesticide residues due to its intensive use. Almost no reviews have addressed pesticide residues in honey, calculated a hazard index or discussed their potential reproductive toxicity. The focus of this article is primarily to summarize advances in research related to pesticide residues, estimate daily intake of pesticide residues from consuming honey only and discuss the potential reproductive toxicity associated with those residues. The results showed that 92 pesticide residues were found in honey samples from 27 countries. Six residues belong to class IA toxicity, eight residues belong to class IB toxicity, 42 residues belong to class II, 35 residues belong to class III and one residue belong to class IV toxicity. The calculated hazard indices (HIs) suggest high potential health risk by consuming honey. In addition, residues found in honey are known to impair semen quality among exposed individuals and experimental animal models. In conclusion, consumption of honey as one of many food items contaminated with pesticide residues may induce male and female reproductive toxicity in consumers.

FEATURES OF ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES RESIDUES ACCUMULATION IN MELLIFEROUS PLANTS, BEE POLLEN AND HONEY

Honey is natural product, which is produced by honeybees and due to contain of minerals, vitamins, simple sugars, organic acids, antioxidants and enzymes, it is considered as product with good nutritional and therapeutic properties. All beneficial characteristics of honey are reduced if it is contaminated with extraneous chemicals include pesticides. The purpose of this research was to study pesticides residues accumulation in the flowers of different types of melliferous plants, bee pollen and honey obtained from Odessa Region during 2015–2017 years. A total of 121 samples of flowers of melliferous plants and trees, 78 samples of bee pollen and 104 samples of honey were investigated with gas-liquid chromatography method. We found that all investigated samples were positive to such organochlorine pesticides as α, β, γ–isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane and dichlorodiphenyltrichloromethylmethane and its derivatives in different concentration. Our studies determined that high level of organochlorine pesticides was in samples of sunflower flowers whith average concentrations of α, β, γ–isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane 7.51±0.04 μg/kg, and DDT 6.98±0.02 μg/kg. Flowers of buckwheat and others field herbs (including as wild herbs as fodder crops) had even less concentration of these pesticides. Besides, the obtained results show that in the flowers of fruit trees (cherry, apple, pear, cherry, peach, cherry plum) had less concentration of studied pesticides in compere to forest trees (white acacia, linden). The results of bee pollen and honey samples examination have shown the same situation. The highest concentration of α, β, γ–isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane and dichlorodiphenyltrichloromethylmethane was in sample from sunflower origine with average consentration 3.52±0.05 and 3.77±0.03 μg/kg in bee pollen, 2.74±0.01 and 2.53±0.03μg/kg in honey respectively. However, the detected concentrations of pesticide residues in all samples were lower than the maxim admissibile limits, according to national and EU standards. Despite this, we suggest that regularly monitoring of pesticide residues in melliferous plants and apiculture products at national level need to grantee of quality and safety of honey and protection of consumers` health.

Assessment of Antimicrobial and Pesticide Residues in Food Products Sourced from Peasant Family Farming in Chile

The presence of antimicrobial and pesticide residues in products sourced from peasant family farms selected from eight regions of Chile was determined. A total of 204 samples were analyzed from family farm products, including honey, lettuce, tomato, strawberry, raspberry, lamb meat, and cow's milk. Pesticide residues were found in 43 of 107 samples tested for them, but only 4 samples had concentrations that exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs) set by Chilean regulations. As for animal products, 2 of 15 cow's milk samples tested positive for permethrin residues; however, these concentrations did not exceed Chilean MRLs. No pesticide residues were detected in honey samples. As for antimicrobial drugs, 4 of 14 lamb meat samples and 11 of 79 cow's milk samples tested positive for different classes of antimicrobial residues, such as tetracyclines, macrolides, aminoglycosides, and β-lactams. Among these, only three samples exceeded the MRLs for these matrices. Traces of tetracyclines and sulfonamides were detected in 7 of 29 honey samples. These findings show that these chemical contaminants are present in trace concentrations in foodstuffs produced by peasant family farms in Chile; however, most residues did not exceed the regulatory limits. This study is the first assessment of the presence of residues from antimicrobial drugs and pesticides in food products sourced from peasant family farms in Chile. Data about the current state of drug residues in this segment of food products provide a baseline for efforts to close possible gaps in current surveillance schemes.

Detection of Diazinon Residue in Honey and Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) in Bandar-Abbas and Meshkinshahr, Iran

BACKGROUND

The excessive use of pesticides for crops by farmers, their destructive effects on beneficial organisms, such as bees, have become a big problem today. This study was designed to find out if the honey bee (Apis mellifera) and the honey be affected by diazinon.

METHODS

Six hives were purchased, 3 hives in Bandar-Abbas and remaining were considered for Meshkinshahr. Plants around the hive were sprayed with diazinon at a concentration of 2/1000. Sampling took place 15d after spraying, and diazinon residue was measured by the HP TLC. The study was conducted in 2017-2018.

RESULTS

The amount of diazinon residue in honey and honey bee was measured and compared with existing studies. The amount of diazinon residue in honey bee was found to be 0.017mg/kg in Bandar Abbas, and 0.005mg/kg in Meshkinshahr hives. There was nothing in honey.

CONCLUSION

Honey is safe for consumers.